About the Authors

Ruixu Huang

Contributed equally to this work with: Ruixu Huang, Caroline E. Kratka

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, United States of America

Caroline E. Kratka

Contributed equally to this work with: Ruixu Huang, Caroline E. Kratka

Roles Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America

Jeffrey Pea

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Project administration, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America

Cai McCann

Roles Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Spatial Technology Platform, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America

Jack Nelson

Roles Investigation, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Spatial Technology Platform, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America

John P. Bryan

Roles Software, Visualization, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Spatial Technology Platform, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America

Luhan T. Zhou

Roles Methodology, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America

Daniela D. Russo

Roles Investigation, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Klarman Cell Observatory, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America, Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America, Institute for Medical Engineering & Science, Department of Chemistry, and Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America

Emily J. Zaniker-Gomez

Roles Investigation, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America

Achla H. Gandhi

Roles Investigation, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, United States of America

Alex K. Shalek

Roles Funding acquisition, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Klarman Cell Observatory, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America, Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America, Institute for Medical Engineering & Science, Department of Chemistry, and Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America

Brian Cleary

Roles Funding acquisition, Software, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Faculty of Computing and Data Sciences, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Biology, Program in Bioinformatics, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America

Samouil L. Farhi

Roles Funding acquisition, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Writing – review & editing

‡ SLF, FED, and BAG also contributed equally to this work.

Affiliation Spatial Technology Platform, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America

Francesca E. Duncan

Roles Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

f-duncan@northwestern.edu (FED); britt.anne.goods@dartmouth.edu (BAG)

‡ SLF, FED, and BAG also contributed equally to this work.

Affiliation Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America

Brittany A. Goods

Roles Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

f-duncan@northwestern.edu (FED); britt.anne.goods@dartmouth.edu (BAG)

‡ SLF, FED, and BAG also contributed equally to this work.

Affiliations Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, United States of America, Molecular and Systems Biology, and Program in Quantitative Biomedical Sciences at Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, United States of America

Competing Interests

I have read the journal’s policy and the authors of this manuscript have the following competing interests: A.K.S reports compensation for consulting and/or SAB membership from Honeycomb Biotechnologies, Cellarity, Ochre Bio, Relation Therapeutics, Bio-Rad Laboratories, Passkey Therapeutics, Fog Pharma, Dahlia Biosciences, and intrECate Biotherapeutics. B.A.G., R.H., C.E.K., Y.Z., S.L.F., C.M., A.K.S., F.E.D., H.C.L., L.T.Z., E.Z., and J.N. have filed a patent related to the work described in this study (patent application no. PCT/US24/25824).