Figure 1.
Origin of male native South American samples.
For each sampling site, its geographic location as well as the size (proportional to the circle area) and Y-SNP haplogroup composition of the respective sample are shown. Blue lines: major aquatic systems; dashed gray lines: current national boundaries.
Figure 2.
Multidimensional scaling (MDS) analysis of Y-STR genotypes.
Depicted are the first two RST-based MDS components, C1 and C2, as obtained for the small marker set. The center of each graph has been magnified for better resolution. A: grouping of sampling sites in AMOVA according to fine geographic clustering (A); B: AMOVA grouping according to broad geographic clustering (B); C: AMOVA grouping according to haplogroup affiliation; D: AMOVA grouping according to class of spoken language (excluding samples of individuals with unassigned language class).
Figure 3.
Spatial autocorrelation analysis of Y-STR genotypes.
The spatial autocorrelation analysis was based upon the small marker set. Bold line: all samples; dashed line: Q-M3 (Q1a3a) haplogroup carriers only; filled circles: significant autocorrelation (p<0.05); empty circles: non-significant autocorrelation.
Table 1.
Correlation between Y-SNP haplogroup and language class.
Figure 4.
Prevalence of Y-SNP haplogroup C-M217 (C3*) around the Pacific Ocean.
Light blue: previous studies; dark blue: present study; yellow: relative frequency of C-M217 (C3*) carriers.
Figure 5.
Median-joining network of 167 different Asian and American Y-STR haplotypes carrying Y-SNP haplogroup C3* (from this and previously published studies).
The median-joining network is based upon markers DYS19, DYS389I, DYS389II-DYS389I, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392, DYS393 and DYS439 (see Materials and Methods for details). ALA: Alaskan; KOR: Korean; CHI: Chinese, including Daur, Uygur, Manchu; MON: Mongolian, including Kalmyk, Tuva, Buryat; ANA: Anatolian; INDO: Vietnamese, Thai, Malaysian, Indonesian, Philippines; JAP: Japanese; TIB: Tibetan, Nepalese; ALT: Altaian, including Kazakh, Uzbek; SIB: Teleut, Khamnigan, Evenk, Koryak; ECU: Ecuadorian, including Waorani, Lowland Kichwa, COL: Colombia, including Wayuu; RUS: Russian.
Table 2.
Estimation of the TMRCA (in generations) of C3* Y chromosomes.