Fig 1.
Prevention of zoonotic spillover to humans: Prevention of pathogen spillover from animals to humans; shifting the infectious disease control paradigm from reactive to proactive (primary prevention, upstream).
Prevention includes addressing the drivers of disease emergence, namely ecological, meteorological, and anthropogenic factors and activities that increase spillover risk, in order to reduce the risk of human infection. It is informed by, among other actions, biosurveillance in domestic and wild animals, people and the environment, understanding pathogen infection dynamics, and implementing intervention activities. Exemplary preparedness-response actions (downstream actions) are indicated on the right.
Table 1.
Framework for pandemic prevention, preparedness and response (revised from [19]).