Fig 1.
Summary of B cell subsets in mice and humans.
Stages of B cell maturation and the expression of cell-specific markers for these B cell subsets in mice (grey) and humans (blue). Created with BioRender.com.
Fig 2.
Summary of antibody-independent B cell functions in viral infections.
B cells influence immune response to viral infections through production of pro-inflammatory and regulatory cytokines. B cells produce other effector molecules such as cytotoxic GrB and LT-α, which mediate various immune functions. Granzyme B (GrB+) B cells may contribute to apoptosis of virus-infected cells. B cells produce LT-α, which enhances type I interferon production in myeloid cells. B cells act as professional APCs by presenting viral peptides via MHC II to CD4+ T cells. Stimulation of B cells via TLRs induces downstream signaling resulting in production of antibodies. Created with BioRender.com. APC, antigen-presenting cell; GrB, granzyme B; DENV, dengue virus; FV, Friend virus; HBV, hepatitis B virus; LCMV, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus; LT-α, lymphotoxin-α; MCMV, murine cytomegalovirus; MHC II, major histocompatibility complex class II; MuNoV, murine norovirus; RSV, respiratory syncytial virus; SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; SFSTV, severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus; SIV, simian immunodeficiency virus; TBEV, tick-borne encephalitis virus; TCR, T cell receptorTLR, Toll-like receptor.
Table 1.
This table shows currently described subsets of Bregs and IL-10–producing B cells during viral infections in humans and mice.