Fig 1.
Leverage plots showing the relationships between WNV seroprevalence in house sparrows from the 45 localities included in this study and A) avian richness (estimated from a rarefaction curve), B) mammal richness (estimated from a rarefaction curve), and C) mammal diversity (measured as the evenness index). The prevalence of Leucocytozoon was calculated using the least squares means of a GLM controlling for birds’ ages and locality. The 95% confidence level interval is shown in grey.
Fig 2.
Leverage plots showing the relationships between Leucocytozoon prevalence in house sparrows from the 45 localities included in this study and A) avian richness (estimated from a rarefaction curve) and B) mammal density (sum of the densities of all mammals detected at each locality). The prevalence of Leucocytozoon was calculated using the least squares means of a GLM controlling for birds’ ages and locality. The 95% confidence level interval is shown in grey.
Fig 3.
Leverage plots showing the relationships between Haemoproteus prevalence in house sparrows from the 45 localities included in this study and A) mammal density (sum of the density of all mammal species detected at each locality), B) mammal richness (estimated from a rarefaction curve) and C) mammal diversity (measured as the evenness index). The prevalence of Haemoproteus calculated using the least squares means of a GLM controlling for birds’ sex and age, and locality. The 95% confidence level interval is shown in grey.
Table 1.
Results of the GLMMs testing the relationships between the prevalence of avian malaria Plasmodium, the related Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon parasites (N = 2,588), and the seroprevalence of WNV (N = 2,544), and individual characteristics of house sparrows (age, sex, and month of capture), avian and mammal species density, richness (estimated from a rarefaction curve) and diversity (calculated as evenness index).
Significant relationships (p ≤ 0.05) are highlighted in bold; conditional and marginal (in brackets) R2 variance are shown.
Table 2.
Results of the GLMMs analysing the relationship between the prevalence of the two studied mosquito-borne pathogens: avian malaria Plasmodium (N = 2,588) and seroprevalence of WNV (N = 2,544) and the individual characteristics of the house sparrows (age, sex, and month of capture), avian and mammal species density, richness (measured from a rarefaction curve) and diversity (calculated as evenness index), vector richness (estimated from a rarefaction curve) and diversity (calculated as evenness index).
Significant relationships (p ≤ 0.05) are highlighted in bold. Conditional and marginal (in brackets) R2 variance are shown.
Fig 4.
Relationships between A) mosquito richness (measured from a rarefaction curve) and the total number of mosquitoes collected; B) the number of mosquitoes collected and mammal density; and C) avian diversity (measured as the evenness index) and avian richness (estimated from a rarefaction curve) at the 45 localities included in this study. The 95% confidence level interval is shown in grey.
Fig 5.
Distribution of the 45 localities at which house sparrows were captured in southwest Spain.
Map was built with ArcGIS v10.2.1 (ESRI, Redland) and developed by using shape files of Datos Espaciales de Referencia de Andalucía (DERA, https://www.juntadeandalucia.es/institutodeestadisticaycartografia/DERA/g13.htm).