Fig 1.
Box-plots of variation in upper thermal tolerance (critical thermal maximum, CTmax) in component species of a tri-trophic system involving a caterpillar host (Manduca sexta), a wasp parasitoid (Cotesia congregata), and a wasp hyperparasitoid (Conura sp.).
Dashed lines = mean; solid lines = median; points = 5th/95th percentile outliers. Values inside boxes represent sample size (number of individuals). The means were different among all three species (One-way ANOVA with Tukey HSD post-hoc test; all P’s < 0.05). Photo credits: Justin Bredlau.
Table 1.
Effects of ontogenetic stage (instar) and parasitism by the wasp Cotesia congregata on upper thermal tolerance (critical thermal maximum, CTmax) of Manduca sexta caterpillars.
Fig 2.
Variation in upper thermal tolerance (critical thermal maximum, CTmax) within the caterpillar host Manduca sexta in relation to ontogenetic stage (instar) and parasitism by the wasp Cotesia congregata.
Data points represent the mean ± 1 standard error. Values inside data points represent sample size (number of individuals). The main effects of instar and parasitism were both significant (Two-way ANOVA; Table 1).
Fig 3.
Maximum daily air temperatures recorded near the study site in the past 124 years compared with the average critical thermal maximum (CTmax) of component H-P-HP species measured in this study.
Dashed lines: a = CTmax of host caterpillar, b = CTmax of parasitoid wasp, c = CTmax of hyperparasitoid wasp.