4.1.1. Corpus selection rational.

The selection of Birch’s translation for corpus analysis is methodologically justified by several theoretical and practical considerations. First, Birch’s status as a distinguished sinologist provides unique cultural competency rarely found in dramatic translation contexts. Second, systematic comparison with alternative English translations of Jiaohongji reveals Birch’s version as the only complete scholarly translation available, making comparative analysis methodologically impossible rather than theoretically undesirable. However, this study acknowledges the methodological limitation of single-translator analysis, which may reflect individual stylistic preferences rather than systematic translation phenomena.

4.1.2. Corpus validity and representativeness.

The 86,047-word corpus demonstrates sufficient size for high-frequency verb analysis according to established corpus linguistics standards [33]. Statistical validation using Zipf’s law confirms the corpus’s linguistic representativeness: the type-token ratio (0.096) aligns with comparable dramatic translation corpora. Corpus adequacy for MAKE analysis was validated through power analysis, confirming that 158 instances provide sufficient data for meaningful statistical analysis (p < 0.05, power = 0.80). However, methodological limitations include potential genre-specific constraints inherent in dramatic discourse.

For corpus construction and analysis, a systematic digitization process was implemented. The original PDF text underwent a two-stage conversion process: first to Microsoft Word format for initial text cleaning and formatting, then to plain text (TXT) format for corpus analysis. The resulting corpus comprises 86,047 words in total. Analysis using AntConc 4.1.1, a widely-employed corpus analysis tool in translation studies [34], revealed 7,956 distinct word types across 83,138 tokens, indicating a type-token ratio of 0.096, which is typical for literary translations of classical texts [35].

4.2.1. Research instrument.

This study employs AntConc 4.1.1, a comprehensive corpus analysis toolkit developed by Laurence Anthony, to examine the distribution and usage patterns of MAKE in the translated text. AntConc has been widely validated in corpus linguistics and translation studies for its robust analytical capabilities in lexical research [29,34]. The software’s multiple analytical functions, including concordance analysis, collocation extraction, cluster identification, and keyword generation, enable a systematic investigation of lexical patterns in translated texts. The selection of AntConc for this study is motivated by several methodological considerations. First, its concordance function facilitates detailed examination of MAKE in its immediate textual environment, allowing for nuanced analysis of usage patterns. Second, the collocation analysis features enable identification of significant word partnerships, crucial for understanding how MAKE functions within the target language system. Third, the clustering and N-gram functions permit investigation of recurring phraseological patterns, particularly relevant for analyzing dramatic dialogue. AntConc Parameter Configuration Collocational analysis employed the following settings: Window span: 5L-5R; Minimum frequency threshold: 3 occurrences; Statistical measures: MI score (threshold ≥3.0) and t-score (threshold ≥2.0); Significance level: p < 0.05. Clustering analysis parameters: N-gram length: 3-word sequences; Minimum cluster frequency: 2 occurrences; Case sensitivity: disabled. These parameter settings follow established corpus linguistics protocols while accommodating literary translation analysis requirements.

4.2.2 Analytical Framework and Procedures.

The analytical process follows a systematic progression that integrates both quantitative and qualitative approaches to examine MAKE’s distribution and functions in the translated text. Initially, the corpus undergoes preliminary processing with data importation and parameter configuration in AntConc, followed by the generation of corpus wordcloud to establish baseline lexical distribution patterns. This preliminary analysis provides frequency statistics for MAKE and its variants, offering insights into their relative prominence within the text. The investigation then advances to a detailed collocation analysis, employing statistical measures such as MI scores and t-scores to identify significant word partnerships and examine collocational patterns across different textual positions. This phase includes analysis of semantic prosody and preference patterns, revealing how MAKE functions within larger lexical networks. The study subsequently examines usage patterns through semantic and syntactic classification, with particular attention to distribution across different dramatic discourse types, including dialogue and stage directions. The analysis culminates in a contextual examination that considers how MAKE functions within dramatic text conventions, its stylistic roles in character dialogue, and potential manifestations of translation universals. This comprehensive analytical framework integrates quantitative corpus analysis with qualitative contextual examination, acknowledging both the statistical significance of distribution patterns and the cultural complexity of translation decisions. While this methodology provides systematic evidence for MAKE’s functional patterns, it recognizes inherent limitations in single-translator analysis and subjective elements in functional categorization. The framework’s strength lies in its integration of linguistic, cultural, and dramatic perspectives.

4.2.3. Inter-rater reliability and data validation.

To ensure analytical reliability, a secondary researcher independently analyzed 40 randomly selected MAKE instances (25% of total corpus) using the five-category functional framework. Inter-rater agreement was calculated using Cohen’s kappa (k = 0.847, p < 0.001), indicating substantial agreement. Disagreement cases (n = 6) were resolved through collaborative discussion, with final categorization requiring unanimous agreement. Primary areas of disagreement involved delexical versus notional distinctions, highlighting the need for refined categorical criteria in future research.

4.2.4. Dramatic and cultural context integration.

Each MAKE instance was systematically coded for dramatic function (dialogue vs. stage directions), character type, and scene function. Cultural context analysis involved systematic identification of source-text cultural elements requiring translation mediation, including classical Chinese idioms, traditional customs, and Confucian ethical concepts. Translation strategy analysis examined Birch’s approach through domestication versus foreignization tendencies, explicitation patterns, and register maintenance. This integrated methodology acknowledges that frequency patterns alone inadequately explain translation choices.

4.2.5. Operational definitions of key concepts.

To ensure analytical rigor and conceptual clarity, this study adopts the following operational definitions for key terms:

Phraseological Creativity: This term does not refer to all single-occurrence clusters. Instead, it is defined as a translator’s novel phrasal combination that is not a direct, literal rendering of the source text and is used to solve a specific translation problem (e.g., conveying a culturally specific concept or enhancing dramatic effect). Its assessment requires qualitative analysis of the source-text-to-target-text transformation.

Formulaic Expressions: These are defined as high-frequency (recurring 3 or more times) multi-word units that serve a stable, recurring pragmatic or dramatic function within the text, such as signaling politeness, urgency, or conventional responses. Their function is validated through contextual analysis of their occurrences.

Contextual Specificity: This refers to phraseology that is tightly bound to a unique plot point, character, or scene, and is unlikely to appear elsewhere. Such instances are distinguished from broader stylistic patterns.

6.4.1. Delexical verb constructions and cultural implications.

The delexical verb category represents a primary functional pattern of MAKE in Birch’s translation, closely aligning with CLED’s classification of “carrying out an action”. These constructions typically combine MAKE with nouns to perform specific actions, demonstrating both linguistic functionality and cultural significance in the dramatic context. The corpus analysis reveals frequent patterns such as “make a face”, “make a fuss”, “make a vow”, “make a marriage”, and “make a match”, with those related to romantic commitment showing particular thematic relevance.

These delexical constructions, particularly those concerning love and marriage (“make a vow”, “make a marriage”, “make a match”), serve as crucial linguistic vehicles for conveying the play’s central theme of tragic love between Shen Chun and Bella (Jiaoniang). Their usage reflects the complex social dynamics of traditional Chinese marriage customs, where parental authority and matchmaker’s intervention were institutional requirements under the feudal system.

The cultural significance of these constructions is particularly evident in Scene 31, “Solemn Pact”, as demonstrated in the following example

Example 1

Chinese original: 小生有誓, 生则同衾, 死则同穴。

Pronunciation: [Xiǎo shēng yǒu shì, shēng zé tóng qīn, sǐ zé tóng xué.]

Literal translation: I established vow: living share the same bed covering, dying share the same tomb.

Birch’s Translation: Shen: I made a vow, “in life one room, in death one tomb”.

(Scene 31, Solemn Pact)

This vow, expressing Shen Chun’s commitment to Jiaoniang, translates the profound Chinese concept of eternal love “shēng tóng qīn, sǐ tóng xué” (生同衾, 死同穴, living together on the same bed, dying together in the same tomb, signifying the a deep commitment to a relationship, often used to describe the bond between two people, especially in marriage). The delexical construction here effectively bridges cultural concepts while maintaining dramatic intensity. This translation strategy reaches its dramatic apex in Scene 19, “Parting Vows”, where such constructions underscore both the lovers’ determination and the playwright’s implicit critique of restrictive feudal marriage customs. The scene’s emphasis on vow-making not only advances the plot but also reveals the writer’s criticism and resistance to unsuitable feudal ethical codes through the young couple’s expressed determination to remain together.

Birch’s choice of “made a vow” exemplifies Baker’s explicitation universal in action, transforming the culturally implicit shì (誓, a Confucian ritual commitment) into an accessible English construction. This aligns with Skopos theory’s multi-functional mandate: it preserves rhythmic parallelism (“in life one room, in death one tomb”) for performability, while mediating feudal Chinese marital ethics through familiar lexical packaging. However, Tymoczko’s cultural mediation theory reveals a significant trade-off: the translation reduces the cosmological weight of “shēng tóng qīn, sǐ tóng xué”(生同衾死同穴, symbolizing yin-yang unity in shared life/death spaces) to Western marital conventions, prioritizing dramatic urgency over cultural authenticity. The delexical construction thus becomes a site of reception compromise, where accessibility gains partially obscure the original’s ritual gravity.

From the perspective of Iser’s reception theory, Birch’s choice of ‘made a vow’ effectively bridges a potential cultural gap for the target audience. By using a familiar English construction, the translator minimizes the cognitive effort required from the ‘implied reader’ to grasp the scene’s emotional weight, thus ensuring the dramatic flow is not interrupted by cultural ambiguities.

6.4.2. Causative verb patterns in cultural term translation.

The causative function of MAKE represents a significant grammatical pattern in Birch’s translation, closely aligning with CLED’s classification of “causing or changing”. This category demonstrates complex syntactic structures, primarily manifesting in patterns such as “make+sb+do”, “make+sb+done”, “make+sb+doing”, “make+object+adj”, and “make+sb+noun”. These constructions serve crucial functions in conveying both dramatic action and cultural nuances within the translated text.

The corpus analysis reveals frequent causative patterns including “make me shout”, “made me think of”, “make us watch”, and notably, “make wild geese drop”. These constructions demonstrate how causative MAKE functions as a bridge between Chinese literary conventions and English dramatic expression. Of particular interest is the complex cultural translation evident in Scene 5, “In Search of a Beauty”, where the causative construction plays a pivotal role in cultural transfer:

Example 2

Chinese original: [二净].....一个姓王名娇娘, 真有沉鱼落雁之姿, 闭月羞花之貌。仙姬队里无双, 神女群中第一。

Pronunciation: [(Èr jìng)......Yí gè xìng Wáng míng Jiāo Niáng, Zhēn yǒu chén yú luò yàn zhī zī, Bì yuè xiū huā zhī mào. Xiān jī duì lǐ wú shuāng, Shén nǚ qún zhōng dì yī.]

Literal translation: One named Wang Jiaoniang, truly has sink-fish fall-wild-goose’s appearance, eclipse-moon shame-flower’s looks. Immortal-maiden team inside matchless, Goddess group within first-one.

Birch’s Translation: Ma, Ge:......there’s Miss Wang Jiaoniang, Bella, with beauty to shame fish into sinking, make wild geese drop from the sky screen the moon, cause flowers to hide their heads; peerless among the fairy throng prime goddess of them all.

(Scene 5: In Search of a Beauty)

This passage demonstrates the translator’s sophisticated handling of cultural metaphor through causative construction. The phrase “make wild geese drop” represents Birch’s translation of the classical Chinese idiom “chén yú luò yàn” (沉鱼落雁, it literally refers to the scene where fish swim down in the water and geese descend gracefully from the sky, which is commonly used to describe exceptionally beautiful or alluring women), originating from Zhuangzi’s “On the Uniformity of All Things”. The causative construction here serves dual functions: it maintains the syntactic integrity of English while preserving the cultural resonance of the original metaphor, which traditionally describes transcendent female beauty capable of affecting natural phenomena.

Syntactically, these causative constructions consistently follow the pattern “MAKE+object+object complement”, where the object position is typically occupied by nouns or pronouns, and the object complement by verbs or adjectives. This structural consistency, evident across multiple instances in the corpus, suggests a systematic translation strategy for rendering Chinese literary expressions into dramatically effective English. The causative function thus emerges as a crucial linguistic tool in Birch’s approach to cultural translation, enabling the preservation of classical Chinese literary aesthetics within the constraints of English dramatic discourse.

The rendering of “luò yàn” (落雁) as “make wild geese drop” demonstrates Toury’s operational norms through its systematic “MAKE+O+OC” patterning--a consistent strategy for Chinese causative constructions. In this case, instead of resorting to the Western beauty idioms (e.g., “breathtaking”), Birch conserved Zhuangzi’s ecological metaphor to honor the source text’s literary aesthetics, which conforms to the rule of Skopos theory. This translator agency reflects DTS’s notion of norm negotiation, where systemic expectations yield to poetic conservation. Nevertheless, Iser’s reception theory highlights a risk: audiences unfamiliar with classical Chinese conventions may misinterpret the nature-as-hyperbole trope, potentially exoticizing Jiaoniang’s beauty rather than recognizing it as a cultural expression of transcendence.

This translation strategy, however, creates a complex reception dynamic. For a reader unfamiliar with the classical Chinese allusion, the phrase ‘make wild geese drop’ might seem surreal. This requires a significant ‘gap-filling’ effort from the reader to understand it as a cultural hyperbole for beauty, rather than a literal description, which could influence their perception of the character Jiaoniang.

6.4.3. Notional verb usage in plot development.

The notional usage of MAKE represents a distinct semantic category in Birch’s translation, primarily encoding concrete actions of creation or formulation. Unlike its delexical or causative functions, MAKE in this category retains its full lexical meaning, demonstrating semantic autonomy in constructions such as “make a note”, “make plans”, and “make trouble”. This usage pattern aligns with CLED’s classification of “creating or producing”, though in the dramatic context it often extends beyond physical manufacturing to encompass mental and social constructions.

The semantic complexity of notional MAKE is particularly evident in scenes of emotional tension, as demonstrated in Scene 12, “Thwarted Rendezvous”:

Example 3

Chinese original: 〔旦〕兄果无意于妾,前日之言, 却是为何?

〔生笑介〕我岂无意?但姐姐空言见调, 在此也则枉然, 所以欲图归计。若姐姐果有真情,小生便住此一百年也使得。

Pronunciation: [(Dàn) Xiōng guǒ wú yì yú qiè, qián rì zhī yán, què shì wèi hé?

(Shēng xiào jiè) Wǒ qǐ wú yì? Dàn jiějie kōng yán jiàn diào, zài cǐ yě zé wǎng rán, suǒ yǐ yù tú guī jì. Ruò jiějie guǒ yǒu zhēn qíng, xiǎo shēng biàn zhù cǐ yì bǎi nián yě shǐ dé.]

Literal translation: [Dan (Female Role)]: If you, sir, truly have no interest of me, why did you speak those words before?

[Sheng (Male Role)] (laughs): How could I be without interest? But your words, lady, are mere empty flattery here—vain and meaningless. Thus, I resolved to leave. If you, elder sister, truly harbor sincere feelings, then I, this humble scholar, would gladly dwell here for a hundred years.

Birch’s Translation:

Bella: But if you really care nothing for me, why did you say those things the other day?

Shen (with a laugh): How can you think I don’t care for you? But when you pretend to be offended, it is useless for me to stay on here and so I must make plans to return home. If your feelings for me were true I would stay here a hundred years!

(Scene 12 Thwarted Rendezvous)

This exchange illustrates how notional MAKE functions as a dramatic device for character development and plot progression. In “make plans”, the verb operates at multiple levels: literally denoting the formulation of arrangements while simultaneously serving as a rhetorical strategy in lovers’ discourse. Shen Chun’s deployment of “make plans” represents not merely practical arrangement but emotional manipulation, using the threat of departure to test Bella’s affection. This scene, culminating in their failed rendezvous at Spring Splendor (xi chun tang) due to rain, demonstrates how notional MAKE constructions can advance both plot mechanics and character psychology.

The translator’s choice of notional MAKE in such contexts reflects a sophisticated understanding of both linguistic and dramatic requirements. These constructions serve not only to convey literal meaning but also to maintain dramatic tension through their inherent sense of active creation or formulation. This dual functionality, practical and dramatic, distinguishes notional MAKE as a crucial element in Birch’s translation strategy, particularly in scenes where character motivation and plot development intersect.

The translation of “tú guī jì” (图归计, strategize a return) as “make plans” reveals Skopos-driven prioritization: plot propulsion and psychological tension supersede semantic precision. While Baker’s simplification universal explains the syntactic reduction of a resultative compound, Birch strategically exploits MAKE’s notional function to expose Shen’s manipulative rhetoric-an exercise of translator agency that complexifies interpersonal dynamics. This exemplifies Vermeer’s skopos hierarchy, where dramatic character development overrides lexical fidelity.

From a reader-reception standpoint, the phrase ‘make plans’ is particularly effective. It presents Shen’s ultimatum in deceptively simple and pragmatic terms. This creates a subtle gap for the ‘implied reader’ to fill: one must look beyond the literal action of planning and infer the complex psychological motivation beneath. This process of inference actively engages the audience, making them participants in deciphering the lovers’ intricate emotional negotiation rather than passive observers.

6.4.4. Linking verb functions and thematic resonance.

The linking verb function of MAKE in Birch’s translation demonstrates significant semantic versatility, aligning with CLED’s classification of linking verb usage denoting “become”, “arrange into a pattern”, or “equal to”. This functional category proves particularly significant in the dramatic text, where constructions such as “make a perfect pair” and “makes a perfect fit” serve both linguistic and thematic purposes, reinforcing the play’s central motifs of love, compatibility, and destined unions.

The dramatic significance of linking verb MAKE manifests prominently in scenes of romantic recognition and doubt, as evidenced in Scene 7, “Response in Rhyme”:

Example 4

Chinese original: 和得好诗。姐姐, 你和申家哥哥正是一对儿。

Pronunciation: [Jiějie, nǐ hé Shēn jiā gēge zhèng shì yí duìr.]

Literal translation: You’ve matched a good poem. Elder sister, you and Shen family elder brother exactly are one pair.

Birch’s Translation: You have matched his poem beautifully, Mistress. You and Cousin Shen certainly make a perfect pair.

(Scene 7: Response in Rhyme)

This usage demonstrates how linking verb MAKE functions as a dramatic device for articulating character relationships. Petal’s (Feihong) deployment of “make a perfect pair” represents a pivotal moment in the narrative, where her role transitions from potential obstacle to facilitator of the central romance. The construction here serves both linguistic and dramatic purposes, simultaneously establishing equivalence and advancing the plot through character development.

The complexity of linking verb MAKE’s dramatic function becomes more apparent in scenes of emotional conflict, as illustrated in Scene 31, “Solemn Pact”:

Example 5

Chinese original: 自古道痴心女,负心汉,这对轴头儿两下相厮见, 怎得个成双到老年。

Pronunciation: [Zì gǔ dào chī xīn nǚ, fù xīn hàn, zhè duì zhóu tóur liǎng xià xiāng sī jiàn, zěn dé gè chéng shuāng dào lǎo nián.]

Literal translation: All say foolish woman, unfaithful man, the pairs mutually meet, how can they grow old together?)

Birch’s Translation:

The old saying is “doting woman, faithless man”:

this parallel makes a perfect fit;

how are such a pair to grow old together?

(Scene 31: Solemn Pact)

Here, the linking verb construction “makes a perfect fit” operates at multiple levels of meaning. Beyond its basic linking function, it serves as a vehicle for cultural commentary, translating “liǎng xià xiāng sī jiàn” (两下相厮见, the pairs mutually meet) while simultaneously expressing Bella’s emotional turmoil. This usage demonstrates how linking verb MAKE can bridge linguistic, cultural, and dramatic requirements within a single construction.

The semantic range of these linking verb constructions extends beyond simple equivalence to encompass complex emotional and cultural meanings. While maintaining the basic linking verb function of “become”, these uses demonstrate how grammatical function can be leveraged for dramatic effect, particularly in scenes where character relationships and cultural expectations intersect. This sophisticated deployment of linking verb MAKE reveals Birch’s sensitivity to both linguistic precision and dramatic necessity in translation.

“zhè duì zhóu tóur” (这对轴头儿, paired scroll rod finials) originally refers to the exquisitely crafted decorative ends (e.g., rosewood, cloisonné) of traditional Chinese handscroll paintings or calligraphy rods. These finials symbolize a perfectly interlocking dependency—each component reliant on the other to preserve the artwork’s integrity and enable its graceful unrolling. The linking verb construction “make a perfect fit” mediates “liǎng xià xiāng sī jiàn” (两下相厮见, the pairs mutually meet) through a Western romantic lens, obscuring the original’s emphasis on social compatibility (门当户对, mén dāng hù duì, implies a well-matched marriage between two socially-equal families). Polysystem theory explains this as hybridization: Birch negotiates between Chinese literary parallelism and English theatrical speech patterns, creating a culturally syncretic expression. In Scene 31, Baker’s leveling-out universal is subverted when “makes a perfect fit” partially neutralizes Bella’s ironic critique in “chī xīn nǚ, fù xīn hàn” (痴心女负心汉, doting woman, faithless man), softening gender-power commentary for target-culture palatability. Reception theory clarifies this trade-off: while enhancing thematic resonance, the phrasing risks misrepresenting the play’s subversion of Confucian marital ideals, privileging romantic destiny over social critique.

Iser’s theory helps illuminate the function of these linking verb constructions. Phrases like ‘make a perfect pair’ are readily accessible ideological shortcuts for a Western audience. They allow the reader to immediately grasp the concept of compatibility without needing to navigate the complex social and literary nuances of the original Chinese text (e.g., 门当户对, a well-matched marriage between two socially-equal families). By providing such familiar linguistic structures, the translator reduces the potential for cognitive friction, ensuring the play’s central thematic concerns about destiny and compatibility resonate smoothly with the target reader.

6.4.5. Phrasal verb constructions in emotional expression.

The phrasal verb category represents a distinct syntactic pattern in Birch’s translation, where MAKE combines with particles or prepositions to form compound verbal expressions. These constructions, including “make out”, “make up”, and “make fun of”, demonstrate both linguistic versatility and dramatic functionality within the translated text. Their deployment often serves multiple purposes: advancing plot development, revealing character psychology, and bridging cultural expressions.

The dramatic significance of phrasal MAKE constructions is particularly evident in scenes of emotional complexity, as demonstrated in Scene 38, “Return in Triumph”:

Example 6

Chinese original: 萧萧翠竹响琅玕, 夜雨幽窗梦更寒。遥望玉楼人近远, 起来拨尽晓灯残。

Pronunciation: [Xiāo xiāo cuì zhú xiǎng láng gān,

Yè yǔ yōu chuāng mèng gèng hán.

Yáo wàng yù lóu rén jìn yuǎn,

Qǐ lái bō jìn xiǎo dēng cán.]

Literal translation: Rustling jade bamboo hums with jade-like clatter,

Night rain whispers through the window—dreams grow colder.

Gazing afar at the jade tower, figures blur,

I rise, scraping away the dawn lamp’s fading ember.

Birch’s Translation:

Thick bamboos creak like tinkling jade

dreams colder than night rain by obscure window.

Try to make out where her precious chamber lies

rise at dawn to trim the lamp once more.

(Scene 38: Return in Triumph)

This passage illustrates how phrasal MAKE constructions function as vehicles for both narrative progression and psychological revelation. The use of “make out” operates at multiple levels: literally denoting the act of discernment while simultaneously expressing emotional distance and psychological struggle. The context, following Shen Chun’s success in the Examination for Advance Scholar and his subsequent visit to Wang Wenrui’s household, adds layers of ironic contrast to the phrasal verb’s deployment. Despite his academic triumph, Shen Chun’s inability to locate Bella’s chamber, emphasized through the phrasal construction “make out”, underscores the persistent barriers to their union.

The translator’s choice of this phrasal construction demonstrates sophisticated linguistic strategy. While “make out” functions equivalently to “figure out” in basic semantic terms, its selection carries additional connotations of effort and frustration that align with the scene’s emotional tenor. This usage exemplifies how phrasal MAKE constructions can simultaneously serve practical communication needs while enriching the dramatic texture through their inherent semantic complexity.

Furthermore, these phrasal constructions often function as bridges between Chinese literary conventions and English dramatic expression. Their deployment in emotionally charged scenes suggests their role in maintaining dramatic tension while facilitating cross-cultural understanding. This dual functionality, serving both linguistic clarity and dramatic intensity, positions phrasal MAKE constructions as crucial elements in Birch’s translation strategy.

“Make out” exemplifies Baker’s compensation strategy, explicating the spatial deixis in “yáo wàng yù lóu rén jìn yuǎn” (遥望玉楼人近远, gazing distantly/confusedly at the jade tower) through phrasal verb pragmatics. Skopos theory reveals a register conflict: the colloquialism prioritizes dramatic immediacy but clashes with the scene’s classical imagery (“tinkling jade”), reflecting tension between lyrical preservation and performative clarity. Iser’s reception gaps emerge here-- the verb’s modern connotations (“decipher”/”succeed”) impose an anachronistic problem-solving frame on Shen’s imperial-era longing. This choice reflects Toury’s preliminary norms, where target-culture theatrical conventions (verbal dynamism) override source-text historical register, demonstrating functionalist prioritization of emotional intelligibility over poetic historicity.

This choice creates what Iser might call a productive ‘reception gap’. On one hand, the colloquial and modern feel of the phrasal verb ‘make out’ makes Shen Chun’s struggle immediately relatable to a contemporary audience. On the other hand, it risks creating an anachronistic tension with the classical setting of the play. This gap requires the reader to actively negotiate between the historical context and the modern psychological rendering, potentially leading to a richer, more complex understanding of the character as a timeless figure grappling with universal emotions.