Fig 1.
Sampling locations where the main zoonyms of the common toad were recorded, both in the field and through social media.
The number of sites does not equal the total number of informants, as multiple individuals were interviewed from each locality. Zoonyms of limited geographic range are not shown.
Fig 2.
The geographic distribution of the main zoonyms of Bufo bufo in Greece, based on the data of Fig 1.
Zoonyms of limited geographical distribution are not depicted. Dashed colours indicate the existence of mixed zones where multiple zoonyms co-occur. The unicoloured areas are schematic and do not exclude the existence of linguistic “islands” of different zoonyms within their boundaries, which may have not been identified in the present survey. Also, in mixed zones where multiple zoonyms co-occur, the degree of use of each term by the local population (i.e whether one zoonym is dominant, while another is falling out of use) is not depicted. It should be stressed that the maps of Central and Eastern Macedonia, as well as those of Thrace, do not depict the drastic demographic and linguistic changes that took place in these regions during the 20th century. Uncoloured areas denote parts of Greece that were not sampled by the present study, urban centres, and regions where the common toad does not occur.
Fig 3.
The distribution of personal names derived from φρῦν- and φροῦν in the Greek-speaking world between 600 BC and AD 200.
Fig 4.
The distribution of personal names derived from φρῦν- and φροῦν- in Magna Graecia between 500–200 BC.
Fig 5.
The distribution of the term φουρνόν (furnón) in Pontus in the early 20th century, based on the origin of the Pontian refugees who still use this zoonym, but also on the current speakers of Romeyka in Turkey.
Fig 6.
Hypothetical distribution of the zoonyms βούζα (vúza) and φουρνός (furnós) in the 6th century AD, immediately prior to the Slavic migrations.
The green arrows represent the waves of Slavic settlement according to [13, 77, 78]. The green dotted line indicates the uncertainty about the homeland of the Slavic populations that invaded the Peloponnese. The mixed orange-purple zones in Attica and Asia Minor are speculative, as the zoonyms used in those areas is not known.
Fig 7.
Hypothetical distribution of toad zoonyms in Greece shortly after the Slavic settlements (7th–9th century AD), during the first Vlach movements in the area (blue arrows).
The spread of each zoonym was designed according to data from its current distribution, as well as contemporary historical sources. In particular, the distribution of Slavic terms was plotted based on evidence of strong Slavic presence, such as Slavic place names and sclaveniae (i.e. areas of dense Slavic settlement) [14]. The hypothetical presence of the term βούζα (vúza) in the Peloponnese, Boeotia, and Macedonia was also based on its current range and the areas known to have remained under Roman Imperial control throughout the Migration Period [48, 49, 78]. It should be noted that this map does not exclude the likely presence of large Greek-speaking populations within areas where Slavic terms predominated, who continued using Greek zoonyms, until they were gradually replaced by Vlach ones.
Fig 8.
(Α) The current distribution of toad zoonyms, in relation to (B) the distribution of the main non-Greek languages of Greece in the early years of the 20th century, according to [41, 79–81], and the maps according to [82, 83]. Coloured areas indicate only the dominant (but not unique) language of the rural population within their boundaries, and not the inhabitants’ ethnic identity or religion. Also, in the 20th century, most of these areas were bilingual. The coloured areas include zones of movement of transhumant pastoralists, and do not necessarily indicate permanent settlement, nor do they indicate population density, which was higher in the (mainly) Greek-speaking towns. For Vlachs in particular, many of the coloured areas (e.g. in Thessaly) functioned only as winter pastures. It should be emphasised that the map depicted here is only indicative of the situation in the beginning of the 20th century and not of the present one, as the linguistic and demographic composition of the region changed radically with the Balkan Wars and the population exchanges determined by the Treaties of 1913, 1914, 1919 (Neuilly) and 1923 (Lausanne) [84–87]. It should also be noted that the dense Greek-speaking populations of eastern Thrace, western-northeastern Asia Minor, and southern Albania are not depicted, as this map only concerns the linguistic situation within the borders of the modern Greek State.
Fig 9.
Hypothetical transmission of toad zoonyms postdating the Vlach settlements (9th century onwards).
The arrows show the transmission of the term μπράσκα (brásca) by Vlachs (blue) and by Greek speakers (white) respectively, in an indeterminate time frame. The bold dash lines indicate the approximate borders of Grand Vlachia, according to [88, 89]. The distribution of all zoonyms is based on their current range, while the blue circles that act as sources of the term μπράσκα represent the recorded permanent settlements of the Vlachs and the annual transhumance routes that they followed [42, 79, 90, 91].
Fig 10.
A) Altitude varies significantly relative to local zoonym usage in mainland Greece (Kruskal-Wallis test; χ2 = 22.886 at 4 degrees of freedom; p = 0.00013). Summary bars and error bars represent the mean ± standard error of the mean. B) Visualisation of the relationship between altitude and zoonym used in different parts of Greece. For both graphs, datapoints from Thessaly and Thrace were not used, as the terms μπράσκα (brásca) and ζάμπα (žaba), respectively, are entirely dominant in these regions. Datapoints from the Arvanite zoonyms of Epirus, Macedonia, and the Peloponnese, were also excluded, as they comprise a minor percentage of the total toad zoonyms used in those regions.
Fig 11.
The distribution of the zoonym μπζάκα (bžaka) (orange) in relation to the boundaries of the Medieval states of Western Greece (black dotted line for the Despotate of Epirus, green for the Despotate of Arta, and blue for the County Palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos).
Table 1.
Fig 12.
Representation of the annual movements of the transhumant herders of Greece (regardless of ethnicity or language) in 1981.
The map was based on [90]. Movements of transitional breeders from Eastern and Central Macedonia and Thrace are not depicted, as their annual journeys greatly diminished or disappeared in those areas following the creation of the northern border of Greece in 1913–1920, the settlement of the exchanged Greeks of Asia Minor and Thrace (1923–1926), and the emigration of many Vlachs to Romania (1926 onwards) [42, 91].
Fig 13.
Hypothetical reconstruction of the linguistic and semantic evolution of the ancient Greek zoonym βροτάχος and vulgar Latin broscus in proto-Albanian and proto-Vlach.