Fig 1.
Global disease burden of schistosomiasis and STN infections in 2021.
(A) Global distribution of schistosomiasis. (B) Global distribution of STN infections. (C) Global co-occurrence distribution of schistosomiasis and STN infections. (D) Heatmap depicting the co-occurrence distribution of countries and territories by disease prevalence levels of schistosomiasis and STN infections. Specific countries and territories in different co-occurrence pattern areas were listed in S3 Table. The basemap boundaries are derived from the Natural Earth project (https://www.naturalearthdata.com/) and were created using the R maps package.
Fig 2.
Spatio-temporal co-occurrence profiles of schistosomiasis and STN infections globally (1990–2021).
(A) Heatmap depicting the co-occurrence distribution of schistosomiasis and STN infections. (B) Temporal evolution of schistosomiasis-STN infection comorbidity patterns.
Table 1.
Relative risk (RR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) of risk factors affecting schistosomiasis and STN infections.
Table 2.
Population attributable fractions for schistosomiasis and STN infections of various risk factors.
Fig 3.
Group-based trajectory modelling (GBTM) of schistosomiasis and STN infection prevalence (1990–2021).
(A) GBTM of schistosomiasis prevalence. Three distinct trajectory groups were identified: Group 1 (red): High and stable prevalence followed by rapid decline; Group 2 (green): Moderate prevalence with gradual increase then sharp decline; Group 3 (blue): Consistently low and stable prevalence. (B) Global distribution of three trajectories for schistosomiasis. Countries are color-coded according to their group assignment (Groups 1–3). (C) GBTM of STN infection prevalence. Three distinct trajectory groups were identified: Group 1 (red): Marked decline from high initial prevalence; Group 2 (green): Moderate stable prevalence followed by rapid decline; Group 3 (blue): Low and declining trend. (D) Global distribution of three trajectories for STN infection. Countries are color-coded according to their group assignment (Groups 1–3). The basemap boundaries are derived from the Natural Earth project (https://www.naturalearthdata.com/) and were created using the R maps package.
Fig 4.
Country-level similarity network analysis for schistosomiasis-STN infection comorbidity patterns (1990–2021).
(A) Clustered heatmap of pairwise country similarity. Rows and columns represent individual countries (n = 69). Color intensity (from blue to yellow) denotes the degree of similarity in comorbidity prevalence trajectories, with yellow indicating higher similarity. Countries are hierarchically clustered based on their 32-year co-occurrence patterns. (B) Global distribution of 6 distinct clusters. Countries are color-coded according to their cluster assignment (Clusters 1–6). (C) Zoomed-in view of the top 50 most similar country pairs from Panel A. This panel highlights the 50 country pairs with the highest similarity scores from Panel A, illustrating the strongest epidemiological connections across nations. (D) Comorbidity prevalence trajectories of schistosomiasis and STN infections across six global region clusters. For each cluster, the 32-year prevalence trajectories of schistosomiasis and STN infections are shown, with shaded areas representing 95% confidence intervals. This visualization confirms the distinct co-occurrence dynamics that define each cluster. The basemap boundaries are derived from the Natural Earth project (https://www.naturalearthdata.com/) and were created using the R maps package.