Table 1.
Epidemiological characteristics of children in the sub-cohort study (n = 76 children).
Table 2.
Incidence of Giardia detection in routine and diarrheal stools in children from León (n = 76 children).
Fig 1.
Cumulative incidence of Giardia detection in routine (n = 1903) and diarrheal stool (n = 402) samples among the 76 children.
Table 3.
Epidemiological characteristics of children with and without Giardia infections detected in the first three years of life (n = 76 children).
Table 4.
Epidemiological characteristics of children with less or equal and more than 2 of Giardia infections detected during the first three years of life, compared to children without Giardia infection.
Table 5.
Association between selected characteristics and Giardia detection in a birth cohort study (n = 76 children).
Fig 2.
Difference in Length-for-age (ΔLAZ) and weight-for-age (ΔWAZ) Z-score between birth and measurements at 24 and 36 months of age.
Panel (A) shows ΔLAZ, and panel (B) shows ΔWAZ in children who experienced at least once Giardia detection by 24 months (24M) (Giardia, n = 35) and 36 (36M) months of age (n = 44), and children without Giardia detection at 24M (No Giardia, n = 41) and 36M (n = 32). *P < 0.050 to 0.010, **P < 0.010 to 0.001, ***P < 0.001.
Fig 3.
Estimation of linear regression in children infected with Giardia (n = 44).
A) Length-for-age (LAZ) and B) Weight-for-age (WAZ) Z-score in infected children. The β-estimated coefficient was calculated using generalized estimating equations (GEE), and the value one month prior to the Giardia infection was used as the baseline. Models were adjusted for age, mode of delivery, sex, SES, birth WAZ and LAZ, baseline WAZ or LAZ (S3 Fig), breastfeeding, and episodes of diarrhea. £Any recurrent infection was defined if a child had more than one Giardia-positive qPCR result in non-consecutive stool samples. §Any persistent Giardia infections were defined if two or more consecutive routine stool samples that tested positive for Giardia. aChildren living within or outside high-Giardia burden areas based on the Kernel density distribution of Giardia infections. *P < 0.050 to 0.010, **P < 0.010 to 0.001, ***P < 0.001.
Fig 4.
Fecal biomarkers measured in children with and without Giardia infections.
Fecal biomarkers measured at 24 (24M) and 36 months of age (36M) in children infected at least once with Giardia infections at 24M (Giardia, n = 24) and 36M (n = 31), and children not infected at 24M (No Giardia, n = 34) and 36M (n = 27) for: A) Myeloperoxidase (MPO), B) Neopterin (NEO), C) Regenerating family member 1β (Reg-1β). *P < 0.050 to 0.010, **P < 0.010 to 0.001, ***P < 0.001.
Fig 5.
Systemic biomarkers measured at 24 months of age in children infected at least once with Giardia infections (Giardia, n = 29) and children not infected (No Giardia, n = 20).
A) Anti-flagellin C (Anti-FliC) -IgA. B) Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1). C) Intestinal fatty acid binding protein (I-FABP). D) Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21). E) Soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR). F) C-reactive protein (CRP). G) Retinol binding protein 4 (RBP4). H) α-1-acid glycoprotein (AGP). I) Soluble cluster of differentiation 14 (sCD14). *P < 0.050 to 0.010, **P < 0.010 to 0.001, ***P < 0.001.
Fig 6.
Correlation between fecal and systemic biomarkers with total events of any diarrhea, diarrhea with a without Giardia, Giardia in no diarrhea stools, and any Giardia detection.
Correlations were performed using Spearman’s rank correlation with all episodes or infections reported in 49 children throughout the cohort for anti-flagellin C (Anti-FliC)-IgA, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), intestinal fatty acid binding protein (I-FABP), fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21), soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR), C-reactive protein (CRP), retinol binding protein 4 (RBP4), α-1-acid glycoprotein (AGP), Length-for-age (LAZ), and Weight-for-age (WAZ) Z-score. *P < 0.050 to 0.010, **P < 0.010 to 0.001, ***P < 0.001.