Fig 1.
History of Xenopsylla cheopis insecticide resistance in Madagascar (Modified and updated from Chanteau, 2006) [33].
Fig 2.
Selection process for eligible publications.
Table 1.
Summary of publications reporting results from field evaluations of insecticides in Madagascar from 1960 to 2017.
Table 2.
Summary of Xenopsylla cheopis laboratory assay published from 1998 to 2022.
Fig 3.
Geographical distribution of Xenopsylla cheopis susceptibility status for the four insecticide families commonly used to control flea vectors (studies published between 1998 and 2022). The map was generated with QGIS software (https://qgis.org/en/site/about/index.html). Administrative boundaries were downloaded from GADM: https://gadm.org/index.html.
Fig 4.
Evolution of flea resistance to the insecticides used for vector control in Madagascar. Susceptibility status expressed in % represents the proportion of bioassay that were concluded with susceptibility, tolerance or resistance. For instance, 100% of the bioassays conducted with DDT were concluded with resistance.