Fig 1.
Map of Aedes aegypti sampling sites.
Routine surveillance in 10 districts of Tainan City, Kaohsiung City, and Pingtung County in southern Taiwan that are labeled in blue. The expanded districts (those added in 2019) are shown in green. Sanmin (1), Fengshan (2), Qianzhen (3), Xiaogang (4), South (5), North (6), West Central (7), East (8), Yongkang (9), Pingtung (10), Zuoying (11), Lingya (12), Gushan (13), Nanzih (14), Hsingsin (15), Chiengin (16), Yancheng (17), Donggang (18), Anping (19), Annan (20), and Rende (21). The map was created in QGIS 3.32.2 (https://qgis.org). The base layer of the map with CC BY 4.0 license (https://data.gov.tw/licenses) was downloaded from Government Open Data established by National Development Council, Taiwan (https://data.gov.tw/dataset/7442).
Fig 2.
Temporal analysis of the frequencies of mutations in Aedes aegypti.
The histogram displays the frequencies of S989P (A), V1016G (B), T1520I (C), F1534C (D), and D1763Y (E) mutations in Ae. aegypti. The means with standard errors of the mean are depicted for Ae. aegypti mutation frequencies in each district. The average allele frequencies of S989P, V1016G, T1520I, F1534C, and D1763Y in 2019 with the expanded areas used to plot this figure (0.26, 0.39, 0.05, 0.61, and 0.13) were similar to those without expanded areas (0.27, 0.40, 0.07, 0.61, and 0.14).
Fig 3.
Temporal analysis of the mutation frequencies of S989P (A), V1016G (B), T1520I (C), F1534C (D), and D1763Y (E) in Aedes aegypti collected in Tainan, Kaohsiung, and Pingtung.
The means with standard errors of the means were plotted in the histogram according to the frequencies of Ae. aegypti mutations in each district (* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.005; **** p < 0.001).
Fig 4.
Temporal and spatial analysis of T1520I in Aedes aegypti in Taiwan.
The expanded districts in 2019 were not included in this analysis. The map was created in QGIS 3.32.2 (https://qgis.org). The base layer of the map with CC BY 4.0 license (https://data.gov.tw/licenses) was downloaded from Government Open Data established by National Development Council, Taiwan (https://data.gov.tw/dataset/7442).
Fig 5.
Heatmap of the distribution of vgsc genotypes in Aedes aegypti collected in Taiwan between 2016 and 2023.
The proportion from low to high is presented by colors in the order of green < orange < red. Underlined letters represent the mutant alleles in each position.
Fig 6.
Proposed haplotypes (A) and heatmap of the distribution of haplotypes (B) in Aedes aegypti collected in Taiwan between 2016 and 2023. Wild-type and mutation sites are presented in white and gray circles, respectively. Blue and red boxes represent group A and B introns, respectively. a and b denote two types of intron polymorphisms. The underlined letter represents the mutant alleles in each position.
Fig 7.
Distribution of Aedes aegypti haplotypes in Tainan, Kaohsiung, and Pingtung.
The means and standard errors of the means were plotted according to the frequencies of Ae. aegypti haplotypes in each district. (** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.005; **** p < 0.001). The underlined letter represents the mutant allele in each position. a and b denote two types of intron polymorphisms.
Fig 8.
Distribution of Aedes aegypti genotypes among Tainan, Kaohsiung, and Pingtung.
The means and standard errors of the means were plotted according to the frequencies of Ae. aegypti genotypes in each district. (* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.005; **** p < 0.001). Underlined letters represent the mutant alleles in each position.