Table 1.
Mechanisms of immunological response and implications for control and elimination of STH co-infections with other diseases.
Fig 1.
STHs employ both immune protection and immune suppression mechanisms to evade the host’s immune system.
The induction of type 2 immune response is thought to be a crucial immune protection mechanism, while the suppression of dendritic cell function and T cell activation are key immune suppression mechanisms. Helminths trigger the Th2 response that activates cells to release anti-inflammatory and regulatory cytokines (e.g., IL-4, IL-5, IL-9, IL-10, IL-13, TGF-B). These cytokines mediate the activation of effector mechanisms that include the antibody-based immune response and regulatory T cells, inhibit the proinflammatory Th1 response, and modulate antigen activity [82–84]. Figure developed through www.biorender.com. STH, soil-transmitted helminth.
Fig 2.
Integrated strategies for reducing the transmission of STH infections.
Created by authors. STH, soil-transmitted helminth.