Fig 1.
Reference map of the study area.
The upper left panel shows the study location in Manaus, Brazil, South America. The other panels show Manaus, the Adolpho Ducke forest reserve, and the edge between city and forest superimposed on a color infrared composite based on Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager surface reflectance imagery obtained from the USGS Earth Explorer data portal [24]. The composite was generated by placing the near infrared, red, and green spectral bands of the satellite image in the red, green, and blue color channels of the computer system. Red areas represent healthy green vegetation; cyan areas represent built-up surfaces and the sediment-laden Amazon River (Rio Solimões) which confluences with the nearly sediment-free Rio Negro at the Meeting of Waters (Encontro das Águas) south of Manaus. Country boundaries obtained from: t als://www.naturalearthdata.com/downloads/10m-cultural-vectors/10m-admin-0-countries/.
Fig 2.
Map of the Ducke reserve, surrounding areas, and sampling sites.
The map shows the Ducke reserve and contiguous forest categorized by Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) at a 30 m spatial resolution, while the surrounding areas are categorized by Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI) at the same resolution. Both layers were derived from Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager surface reflectance imagery obtained from the USGS Earth Explorer data portal [24]. Sites sampled (black dots) are shown for each distance (continuous lines). The main access points are in the north and south of the reserve.
Table 1.
Properties of BG-Sentinel traps [15], hand-nets, and Prokopack aspirators [14] influencing their attractiveness to mosquitoes and usefulness as sampling methods.
Fig 3.
Relative mosquito species abundance by distance from forest edge for BG-Sentinel traps, hand-nets, and aspirators.
Stacks ordered by genus abundance and then alphabetically by subgenus and species. Number of mosquitoes (Mosquitoes n =) and number of collections (Collections n =) made at each distance shown above bar. Number of individuals per taxon included in parentheses next to corresponding name; sp. = single species, spp. = potentially multiple species. Abbreviated names are given in full in the dataset (S1 Dataset). Dendrograms below each graph show hierarchical clustering of principal component (PC)1 and PC2 from a principal components analysis of relative species frequency for each collection method at each distance sampled.
Fig 4.
Species accumulation and rarefaction curves.
Panels show species richness by distance for each sampling method, and combined data for 223 sites where all three methods were used on the same sampling occasion. Shaded areas surrounding rarefaction and extrapolation lines represent 95% confidence intervals. Curves generated using taxa identified to species level only.
Fig 5.
Left panel shows daily cycles of temperature (°C) and relative humidity (%) recorded at 30-min intervals for each distance from forest edge. Data points derived from all BG-Sentinel trap collections where temperature and relative humidity were recorded, including those where traps failed (S1 Dataset). Right panel shows mean minimum relative humidity (%) and mean maximum temperature (°C) ± 1 standard error (S.E.) at each distance sampled, constructed using data from the final BG-Sentinel trap dataset where traps were still working upon collection.
Table 2.
Results from nominal logistic regressions (P value and (χ2)) to test associations between key variables on occurrence of mosquito taxa captured with BG-Sentinel traps (BGS, N = 294 sites), hand-nets (NET, N = 256 sites), and backpack aspirators (ASP, N = 287 sites).
Blue and red shaded cells indicate significant positive or negative associations, respectively. Gray shaded cells represent factors that were not significantly associated with the designated taxon.