Table 1.
Summary description of sand fly vector control practices discussed in the present review article and associated challenges/limitations.
Fig 1.
Global geographical distribution of IR bioassay reports in Lutzomyia and Phlebotomus sand fly vector species.
The global map focuses in regions with data coverage since 2000: (A) Latin America, (B) Mediterranean basin and north-central Africa, and (C) the Middle East and southeastern Asia. The sand fly species analyzed per region are (A) L. longipalpis, L. evansi, and L. peruensis, (B) mainly, P. papatasi, P. sergenti, and P. tobbi, and (C) mainly, P. papatasi, P. sergenti, and P. argentipes. Data correspond to WHO tube or CDC bottle bioassays in adult field-caught sand fly populations, against compounds of the 4 main insecticide classes. For WHO and CDC bioassay experiments using insecticide discriminating doses, the resistance status is determined by the mortality percentage (%) recorded 24 hours post-exposure (1 hour of exposure), as follows: ≥98% shows susceptibility (green), 90%–97% indicates the possibility of resistance (yellow), and <90% denotes resistance (red). Regarding the cases where (i) KD rates (%) at 1 hour of exposure are given; (ii) other than discriminating doses were tested; or (iii) dose–or time–response KD/mortality curves were provided, the susceptibility/resistance status is presented as defined by the respective authors. The symbol size varies depending on the number of insecticides of the same class tested against a specific population. In cases of differences in the population’s response against these insecticides, the less sensitive condition is presented. A detailed dataset for each bioassay experiment is provided in S1 Table. Maps were obtained from USGS (https://apps.nationalmap.gov/viewer/). DDT, dichloro-diphenyltrichloroethane; IR, insecticide resistance; USGS, US Geological Survey.
Fig 2.
Global geographical distribution and respective allelic frequencies (%) of the kdr mutations at VGSC locus 1014 in sand fly populations.
Molecular analyses refer to (A) P. argentipes populations from India and Sri Lanka and (B) mixed Phlebotomus spp. populations from Greece and P. papatasi populations from Turkey. The size of the pie charts is proportional to the number of specimens genotyped per population. Red dots denote the sampling regions in the 4 countries. Genotyping data correlated with results of bioassay experiments are marked with a black circle. The allelic frequencies, the number of total specimens analyzed per population, and the species included are given in detail in S2 Table. Maps were obtained from USGS (https://apps.nationalmap.gov/viewer/). kdr, knockdown resistance; Leu, leucine (wild-type allele); Phe, phenylalanine (mutant allele); Ser, serine (mutant allele); USGS, US Geological Survey; VGSC, voltage-gated sodium channel.