Fig 1.
Conceptual Framework of the study.
Source: Authors’ modification based on Asaaga [36].
Fig 2.
An overview map of Shimoga and Wayanad districts in regional and national contexts.
The administrative boundary dataset used in this figure is from HindudstanTimesLabs (https://github.com/HindustanTimesLabs/shapefiles/), reproduced under the MIT License. Human case data are from the Department of Health and Family Welfare Services, Government of Karnataka.
Table 1.
The demographic characteristics of respondents by study region.
Table 2.
Awareness and perceptions about KFD by study area.
Fig 3.
Cross-tabulation of level of awareness and risk perception (A) worried about contracting KFD and level of awareness [Shimoga]; (B) worried about contracting KFD and level of awareness [Wayanad], (C) Perceived severity and level of awareness [Shimoga], (D) Perceived severity and level of awareness [Wayanad]. a Significant at p ≤ 0.01; b Significant at p ≤ 0.05.
Fig 4.
General sources and typology of received disease information (A) KFD information pathways; (B) specific sources of disease advice, (C) contents of disease information received and (D) typology of disease advice received. Note: multiple responses. a Significant at p≤0.01; b Significant at p≤0.05.
Fig 5.
A household livelihood matrix depicting aspects of human-environment interactions in a village in Wayanad.
(A) A middle-aged ‘tribal’ woman carrying a pot of water and her children walking bare-footed; (B) farmer carrying basket full of harvested arecanut seeds from a nearby field; (C) a lady wearing a long sleeve [men’s] shirt and trousers as she prepares to go to the forest for firewood collection, and two other ladies wearing their traditional dress and it is visible that they stated using foot-wears following the outbreak; (D) harvested coffee seeds; (E) an example pale-bellied bonnet macaques (macaca radiata diluta) implicated by locals for causing KFD; (F) a cow openly grazing in a nearby forest patch; (G) woman carrying firewood; (H) woman carrying harvested leaves from nearby forest; (I) cow shed with leaf litter. Photo credit: Mujeeb Rahman, Darshan Narayan & Stefanie Schafer.
Fig 6.
Changes to household lifestyles due to KFD (A) Specific adaptive strategies employed based on Shimoga data; (B) Reasons for not altering lifestyle, (C) Adoption of traditional healing practices, (D) Reasons for non-adoption of traditional healing practices. a Significant at p≤0.01; b Significant at p≤0.05.
Fig 7.
Household vaccination against KFD (A) Reasons for not taking vaccination against KFD; (B) Number vaccine doses taken.