Fig 1.
Map of the study area and sampling sites.
(A) World map with India marked inside the red box. (B) Map of India with the Karnataka state and the Kadumane landscape marked. (C) The enlarged land-use land cover map of Kadumane. Red circles indicate sampling locations. The shapefile for the world was downloaded from DIVA-GIS (http://www.diva-gis.org/gdata) and the shapefile for India from Community Created Maps of India (http://projects.datameet.org/maps/). The land-use map of Kadumane was created by Nature Conservation Foundation. All layers are in WGS84 geographic coordinate system and were processed and plotted using QGIS3.10 (https://qgis.org/en/site/), an open-access software.
Table 1.
Prevalence of Bartonella in small mammals captured in different land-use types in the study area.
Fig 2.
Prevalence of Bartonella in the four most common small mammal species.
This figure summarizes our predictions about the high prevalence of Bartonella in the small mammal community. The dots represent calculated prevalence and the bar represents 95% confidence intervals. The sample size of the other species was too low to calculate confidence intervals. The silhouette images of animals were downloaded from PhyloPic (http://phylopic.org), an open-access database that stores reusable silhouette images of organisms.
Table 2.
Tissue specific prevalence of Bartonella in different species of small mammals in the study area.
Fig 3.
(A) Haplotype network showing the relationship among Bartonella sequences from small mammal host species in Kadumane, South India. An integer neighbor joining network was constructed using 657 bp of rpoB using PopArt. The numbers between nodes indicate the number of nucleotide differences between haplotypes. (B) The haplotype accumulation curve (solid line) shows the cumulative haplotype richness (rpoB) sampled across 63 positive small mammals. The extrapolated richness (dotted lines) saturates around the estimated requirement to sample 160 positive individuals to detect all possible haplotypes in this community.
Fig 4.
Bayesian phylogenetic inference of Bartonella based on 773 bp of rpoB sequences.
Sequences from this study, zoonotic Bartonella and other Bartonella are colored purple, brown, and black respectively. Nodes are colored based on posterior probability and monophyletic clades are collapsed for easy visualization. The tree was rooted with one representative of Brucella melitensis. The original phylogenetic tree and accession numbers (MT787669-MT787733) are provided in the S1 Fig and S2 Table respectively. The silhouette images of animals were downloaded from PhyloPic (http://phylopic.org), an open-access database that stores reusable silhouette images of organisms.