Table 1.
Number of districts and corregimientos (centroids) per province or comarca in Panama.
Fig 1.
Map of Panama, depicting anopheline collection sites, provinces, and comarcas.
2006–2007 collection sites = black circles; 2008–2015 collection sites = grey squares; provinces = white; comarcas = grey. Yellow star indicates location of Panama City. Each province and comarca is labeled. BOC = Bocas del Toro; CHI = Chirquí, CNB = Comarca Ngöbe-Buglé, VER = Veraguas; HER = Herrera; LST = Los Santos; COC = Coclé, COL = Colón; PAN = Panamá, CKY = Comarca Kuna Yala; CKM = Comarca Kuna de Madungandí; CKW = Comarca Kuna de Wargandí, CEM = Comarca Embera-Wounaan; DAR = Darién. CKM is a territory within PAN province; CKW is a territory within DAR province. Insets depict details in northern BOC and in southwestern DAR provinces. Panama GIS shapefile obtained from STRI [30].
Fig 2.
Number of cases of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum in the provinces and comarcas of Panama by year.
Grey lines = comarcas; black lines = provinces; solid lines = P. vivax; dashed lines = P. falciparum.
Table 2.
Basic characteristics of malaria cases in Panama during non-epidemic and epidemic years (2000–2014).
Fig 3.
Annual Parasite Index (API) per year and location.
Provinces = black dashed lines; comarcas = grey solid lines. A and C) Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum, respectively, with provinces and comarcas grouped; B and D) P. vivax and P. falciparum, respectively, with provinces and comarcas separated. Note different y-axis scales on each panel. CNB = Comarca Ngöbe-Buglé, CKW = Comarca Kuna de Wargandí, CKM = Comarca Kuna de Madungandí, CKY = Comarca Kuna Yala, CEM = Comarca Emberá-Wounaan, DAR = Darién province.
Fig 4.
Annual Parasite Index (API) versus age group for epidemic and non-epidemic malaria years, by sex and location.
Epidemic years = solid lines; non-epidemic years = dashed lines; provinces = black; comarcas = grey. Left y-axis represents comarca APIs and right y-axis represents province APIs. A and C) Plasmodium vivax API among males and females, respectively; B and D) P. falciparum API among males and females, respectively.
Fig 5.
Total frequency of cluster occurrence for Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum in Panama.
Corregimientos are colored by the frequency at which they were identified by both hot spot detection methods over the designated period. A) P. vivax cluster frequency by corregimiento in epidemic years (2002–2005; maximum frequency = 8). B) P. falciparum cluster frequency by corregimiento in epidemic years (2002–2005; maximum frequency = 8). C) P. vivax cluster frequency by corregimiento in non-epidemic years (2000–2001, 2006–2014; maximum frequency = 22). D) P. falciparum cluster frequency by corregimiento in non-epidemic years (2000–2001, 2006–2010; maximum frequency = 14). Frequencies were calculated using data shown in S1 and S2 Figs. Panama GIS shapefile obtained from STRI [30].
Fig 6.
A and C) Anopheles albimanus and B and D) Anopheles punctimacula s.l. in Panama. Panels A and B represent the full extent of the species distribution models. Panels C and D represent the distributions of each species within Panama. Color shading indicates areas of predicted suitable habitat/presence of the species; white indicates areas of predicted absence of the species. Central and South American GIS shapefiles freely available from DIVA-GIS [74]. Panama GIS shapefile obtained from STRI [30].
Table 3.
Comparison of predicted Anopheles albimanus and An. punctimacula s.l. distributions together with the distributions of Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum cases in Panama.
Table 4.
Anopheles mosquito specimens collected throughout Panama, for Plasmodium testing (Fig 1).