Figure 1.
Prevalence of single or co-infections (two parasites) in the study area.
The figure shows prevalence of infections at the village level and for all 6 villages together. Values and color intensity in the matrices represent the prevalence of single and each combination of parasite infections. Underlined numbers indicate infection prevalence significantly higher or lower (p<0.05) than expected by random chance (the product of single parasite infection prevalence). The map in the center shows elevation and location of each village. Infection abbreviation: malaria (Mal), filariasis (Fil), schistosomiasis (Sch), hookworm (Hoo), Trichuris (Tri), and Ascaris (Asc).
Table 1.
Demographic data and environmental characteristics of each village.
Table 2.
Entomological collections at the village level.
Figure 2.
Prevalence of poly-parasitism by village (Je - Jego, Mi - Milalani, Ng - Nganja, Ki - Kinango, Ma - Magodzoni, Vu - Vuga).
Table 3.
Predictor estimates obtained by GAMs and GAMMs for each single infection and for co-infections.
Figure 3.
Association of age with single parasite infections and with poly-parasitism.
Malaria (A), Filariasis (B), Schistosomiasis (C), Hookworm (D), Trichuriasis (E), Poly-parasitism (F). Gray areas in the graphs indicate age ranges associated with significantly higher levels of infection. The image include the mean value (solid lines) and 95% CI (dashed lines).
Figure 4.
Association of age with single parasite infection and with poly-parasitism in Milalani.
Malaria (A), Filariasis (B), Schistosomiasis (C), Hookworm (D), Trichuriasis (E), poly-parasitism (F). Gray areas in the graphs indicate age ranges associated with significantly higher levels of infection.
Table 4.
Association of abundance and presence of mosquito vectors with malaria and filaria infections in surveyed individuals.
Table 5.
Predictor estimates obtained by GAMs per each parasite infection in Milalani.
Figure 5.
Occurrence of clusters of lower SES and of higher household density.
Colored areas indicate significant clusters based on the Gi*(d) test (p<0.05) of clusters of high levels of crowding and of low levels of SES.
Figure 6.
Occurrence of clusters for each parasite infection.
Colored areas indicate significant hot-spots based on the Gi*(d) test (p<0.05).
Figure 7.
Occurrence of clusters for poly-parasitism.
Colored areas significant hot-spots based on the Gi*(d) test (p<0.05). The analysis is based on the prevalence of co-infections (any combination) recorded in each household.
Table 6.
Results from Spearman's correlation test between co-occurrence of poly-parasitism clusters and clusters of low SES or of high population density.