Instagram as a SNS

Instagram was founded on October 6, 2010, by Kevin Systrom and Mike Krieger [19]. Initially conceived as an online social networking service designed primarily for mobile devices, it enables users to share photos and videos in an intuitive, visually oriented format [20]. In its early description, Instagram presented itself as “a fun and quirky way to share your life with friends through photos. Take a picture with your mobile phone and choose a filter to turn the image into a memory you can keep forever” [21].

In line with its original emphasis on visual storytelling, Instagram enables users to share photos and videos accompanied by hashtags (#), which facilitate content discovery and help organize posts around themes or trends. The platform also functions as a full social networking service, allowing users to create personal profiles and establish “follower” relationships with other users. These connections are inherently asymmetrical, as users are not required to reciprocate follow requests [22]. Today, sharing images through SNS like Instagram has become widespread and culturally embedded practice [22].

One distinguishing feature of Instagram, in contrast to other SNS such as Facebook, is that content creation is predominantly based on the sharing of visual material, requiring users to upload photographs or videos when publishing posts [23]. In addition, the platform incorporates built-in filtering tools that enable users to modify and aesthetically enhance their visual content prior to publication. Furthermore, Instagram users often maintain public accounts, enabling interaction mechanisms, such as following, viewing, liking, and commenting, between individuals who are not part of the same immediate social circles [23].

Motivations for using instagram

As one of the world’s most widely used social platforms, Instagram shapes how people communicate, express themselves, and interact with brands and communities. Its broad user base and strong influence on cultural trends and digital identity prompt an essential question: why do people use Instagram?. Understanding these motivations is crucial given the platform’s integration into users’ daily routines, its strategic importance for brand building and audience engagement, and its impact on the performance of organizations operating within it. These factors highlight the need to explore the motives that drive Instagram use and the benefits and gratifications users derive from the platform [24].

Different studies have attempted to identify the motivations that drive the use of SNS. For example, [24] found that “Surveillance/Knowing about others”, “Documentation”, “Freshness”, and “Creativity” are the most relevant motivations explaining the use of Instagram, with “Surveillance/Knowing about others” being the most influential of the four. In a study by [25] they found that “Social interaction” is an important motivation and justified it with phrases like “To see what others share,” “To like my followers’ photos,” and “To follow my friends.” Furthermore, [25] found other motivations classified as “fun” through parameters like “To avoid loneliness,” “To relax,” and “To escape reality,” as well as the “creativity” motivation through elements like “To create art” and “To show my photographic skills.” Additionally, both studies, [24] and [25], found that the variable “documentation” constitutes an important motivation for using Instagram, broken down into elements such as “To remember special events,” “To commemorate an event,” and “To remember something important.”

[12] through a study with users between the ages of 20 and 39, found five social and psychological motivations in the use of SNS: “social interaction”, “archiving”, “self-expression”, “escapism”, and “sneaky peeks”. “Social interaction” entails connecting with others, staying informed about friends and family, and nurturing interpersonal relationships. “Archiving” involves documenting daily experiences, curating a personal digital space, and preserving photos and memories. “Self‑expression” reflects the desire to communicate one’s authentic identity, present oneself to others, and share personal content. “Escapism” denotes the use of the platform to momentarily detach from reality or alleviate loneliness. “Sneaky peeks” describes the inclination to observe aspects of others’ day‑to‑day lives. Collectively, these motivations promote more favorable attitudes toward Instagram and strengthen users’ intentions to continue using the platform [12].

Additionally, [26] found five motivations for using Instagram: “social interaction”, “creativity”, “self-promotion”, “fun”, and “documentation”. The study also found that, among these motivations, the most prominent were social interaction and fun derived from passive engagement, particularly through viewing others’ posts.

On the other hand, [27] found that the motivations for using Instagram include “liking”, “viewing posts”, “perceived social support”, and “the drive that leads to frequent posting”. These results not only explain users’ motivation but also the frequency of use of this social network, acting as predictors of users’ well-being, both positive and negative. In the same year, a study by [16] dedicated to art on Instagram identified five social and psychological motivations primarily affecting Instagram users, which coincide with those previously mentioned by [12]: “social interaction”, “archiving”, “self-expression”, “escapism”, and “sneaky peeks”. Similarly, the study by [28] found six motivations for using Instagram: “self-expression”, “recreation”, “socialization”, “recording”, “creativity”, and “curiosity”.

More recent research on Instagram‑use motivations has moved beyond general analyses, instead examining motivation patterns within specific user cohorts or contextual factors, such as age, cultural background, or particular features of the platform.

Among the studies that consider specific features of the platform, those analyzing what motivates the use of Instagram Stories stand out, which constitutes one of the most attractive aspects of Instagram. Stories use a format known as IGTV (Instagram TV), which are Reels or videos with a maximum duration of 15 minutes. The study by [29] indicated that people were curious about these IGTVs, with their use primarily motivated by “users’ leisure time”, “social capital”, and “the informational value of the IGTVs”.

Among the studies that examine specific user cohorts or contextual factors shaping Instagram use, such as users’ age, one noteworthy contribution focuses on baby boomers [18], which found that motivations for using Instagram among older adults include: “relationship surveillance”, “documentation”, “inspiration”, “self-promotion”, and “fun/companionship”. Their results emphasize how the use of SNS, and in particular Instagram, helps alleviate loneliness and a lack of social activity in this age group. Based on the Uses and Gratifications framework, [24] also examined the underlying motivations for Instagram use and identified multiple dimensions, such as “social monitoring”, “self-documentation”, “creative expression”, and “perceived social appeal”. Their results indicate that these motivations vary significantly according to contextual age, suggesting that user engagement with Instagram is not static but changes throughout the life span in response to evolving social and psychological demands.

Similarly, non-generalist research in this area emphasizes the importance of considering cultural factors when understanding the use of SNS. For example, a study by [30] on the assessment of Instagram use across different cultures indicates that individuals turn to social networks to satisfy unmet social and psychological needs, with their motivations for use being strongly influenced by cultural factors. This finding is grounded in the influence of culture on individuals’ self‑perception, their interpretation of their environment, and the way they understand the situations around them, as well as on their broader phenomenological experiences.

The literature reviewed indicates that research on Instagram-use motivations has evolved over time. Early studies adopted broad, general approaches, identifying core motivations such as social interaction and fun, alongside other less dominant yet still relevant drivers, including documentation or archiving and creativity. More recent work has shifted toward more targeted analyses, focusing on specific aspects of the platform or on contextual and contingent factors such as users’ age or cultural background. However, despite this progress, these studies remain limited. Further research is needed to identify, on the one hand, the most transversal and influential motivations for Instagram use and, on the other, the specific patterns that emerge when socio-economic and demographic variables are taken into account, such as gender or professional and employability characteristics.

User segmentation of instagram

Market segmentation analysis examines a market structure as consumers perceive it [31]. At its most basic level, the term “market segmentation” refers to the subdivision of a market based on some common element, similarity, or affiliation [32]. Market segmentation aims to identify and delimit market segments or “sets of buyers” that become targets for a company’s marketing plans [33]. The starting point in segmentation is the correct definition of the market, which is crucial for determining its size, growth, and a company’s specific share in it, identifying relevant competitors, and formulating strategies to offer a differential advantage [34]. It is also related to understanding the reasons behind customer behavior before seeking market segments based on the analysis of their needs [34].

SNS, and particularly Instagram, are gaining importance as platforms for social interaction, communication, marketing, and business. Understanding how Instagram users could be segmented is crucial, as this will help visualize the business significance that this social network represents at the corporate level. For this reason, a growing number of companies across all sectors have already integrated, or plan to integrate, social media applications into their marketing strategies.

Academic literature has not remained on the sidelines in the study of this phenomenon, and numerous scholarly works have analyzed the segmentation of SNS users over the last decades. However, this research has relied predominantly on behavioral criteria, with most studies grouping users according to their frequency of use, the variety of activities performed, and/or their level of interaction and engagement, basing segmentation largely on behavioral parameters.

For example, early works as those by [35,36] and [37] classify users as occasional (named as “beginners”, “introvert”, “novel”, or “basic”), moderate (labelled as “versatile”, “social users” and “average”), or intensive (recognized as “expert-communicator”, “outstanding” and “expert”) based on how often they access social media and the extent to which they perform actions such as browsing, commenting, or posting content. Engagement-based distinctions, such as “sporadic”, “lurkers” (or passive users), “socializers” (mainly using SNS for social interaction), and “active contributors” (identifying people actively and frequently uploading content and writing contributions), are also common, as highlighted in [38] typology. Some studies refine behavioral analysis by examining interaction metrics, including likes, comments, and content evaluations, as in [39] segmentation of fan page users.

Beyond behavioral parameters, a smaller group of studies incorporates psychographic variables such as attitudes, involvement, or satisfaction in using SNS, as seen in [15], who identified five consumer segments for their responsiveness to marketing communications in SNS. Also, [28] conducted a segmentation analysis considering key context-specific usage motives of Instagram. They identified a first group, labeled “passionate”, characterized by the strongest motivational drive across all use motives. This was the only segment that clearly valued Instagram’s benefits for self-expression and recreation. The second group, termed “distant”, consisted of users who showed very low inclination to seek benefits related to self-expression, recreation, or creativity, and who held generally neutral views about the platform’s value for recording or socializing. The third group, called “spectator”, considered self-expression and recreation as largely irrelevant motives for them. This study also aimed at figuring out the main personality traits differences among Instagram users.

Finally, more recent research introduces demographic dimensions, notably gender, age, and generational cohorts, to identify differences in SNS adoption and acceptance. For example, [17] identified four groups using a priori segmentation based on gender and generation, considering four groups, two referred to baby boomers, men and women (born between 1947 and 1966) and two referred to the silent generation, men and women (born between 1927 and 1946), and analyzed the predictors of acceptance of social networking sites within these groups. In a similar vein, [40] found, based on technological preparedness profiles and generation, three segments with different determinants to explain the intention to use social media: “independent older adults,” “technologically apathetic older adults,” and “tech-enthusiast older adults.”

Overall, existing studies on segmentation have relied predominantly on behavioral indicators, while the incorporation of motivational and demographic factors remains comparatively limited. The incorporation of other criteria, like broader motivational dimensions, and socio-economic and demographic characteristics would complement the abundant segmentation work focused on frequency and patterns of use, offering a more comprehensive understanding of the heterogeneity of social media users.

Sociodemographic aspects, satisfaction and loyalty of Instagram users

Contemporary social media research increasingly underscores the value of incorporating sociodemographic variables into SNS user segmentation to better capture differences in usage patterns and interaction motivations.

Recent studies indicate that Instagram usage profiles are closely associated with factors such as age, gender, and income, enabling the identification of segments with distinct behaviors and needs within platform [41]. Complementing this perspective, emerging research has begun to examine motivational profiles, for example, among university students, showing that segments such as passive users versus reciprocal communicators differ not only in their platform engagement but also in their interests, for example to discuss public, social and political issues, highlighting the interplay between motivational and demographic characteristics [42]. Similarly, [43] demonstrated that followers of Instagram influencers can be grouped into differentiated segments based on consumption patterns, including the newly identified “Mirror Tourist,” a profile that blends interests in fashion and tourism and is shaped by underlying demographic attributes.

Together, these findings suggest that segmentation strategies should integrate both sociodemographic and motivational data to provide more accurate and actionable insights, particularly in business and marketing contexts. Ultimately, segmentation models that incorporate sociodemographic dimensions not only enhance academic understanding of Instagram use but also equip social and commercial organizations with more precise tools for designing communication strategies tailored to specific audiences.

In the same vein, studies on motivations and user segmentation in SNS should be complemented by analyses of their effects on user satisfaction and loyalty, as these outcomes help explain how different user profiles reinforce continued platform use [17,36,40]. For example, [15] in a study examining 1,025 social media users across four regions, identified five consumer segments based on their responsiveness to marketing communications, incorporating psychographic variables such as attitude, involvement, satisfaction, and intention to continue using SNS. Their findings illustrate how specific user segments are linked to satisfaction and loyalty metrics, an insight particularly relevant for companies and brands operating on these platforms.

In conclusion, although motivations play a central role in shaping user behavior on social networking sites (SNS), segmentation research has largely overlooked motivation-based criteria. Only a limited number of recent studies, most notably [28], explicitly incorporate motivational factors, highlighting the need for additional research that can corroborate or further refine the motivational segments identified so far in order to assess the most transversal and influential motivations among Instagram users. Moreover, existing research rarely examines how motivational patterns differ across socio-demographic groups, nor does it sufficiently explore how these user segments relate to key outcome variables such as satisfaction and loyalty. These gaps limit our ability to generate actionable managerial insights, as companies lack the knowledge needed to understand the specific traits and motivations of user segments as well as their likelihood of continued Instagram use.

Sample profile

According to the sample, the percentage of women was slightly higher than that of men. A high percentage (61.4%) of respondents were between 18 and 23 years old. A large percentage were single (81.7%). The majority of the sample had a high educational level (university) (73.5%). Most participants were students (63.1%) with incomes of less than 500 dollars (67.9%) and used Instagram for more than 60 minutes a day (33.5%). See Table 1.

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Table 1. Socio-demographic variables.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354487.t001

Motivations of Instagram users

A factor analysis was performed to identify fewer factors that could explain the items related to Instagram usage motivations. The factor loadings ranged from 0.501 to 0.810, with all values exceeding 0.5. Cronbach’s alpha values ranged from 0.926 to 0.889, all high and close to 1. This indicated a high level of reliability among the items within each factor. The KMO index reached a value of 0.939. Additionally, Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (sig = 0.00). These values indicated the appropriateness of the factor analysis.

In the results, no substantial differences were observed between primary and secondary loadings. All items exhibited a dominant factor with loadings above 0.50, along with adequate communality values. Items belonging to the same construct showed high and homogeneous loadings without dispersion across multiple factors, providing evidence of satisfactory convergent and discriminant validity of the factorial model. See Table 2. The Table with the full factor loadings is presented in Appendix A in S1 Appendix.

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Table 2. Motivations of Instagram users.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354487.t002

According to Table 2, the first dimension was named “Curiosity, Creativity, and Documentation” because it is related to the use of Instagram for recording and remembering events, creating art, showcasing photographic skills, and exploring through photography. This factor explained 51.64% of the variance. The second dimension was named “Self-Expression” because it is related to becoming popular, being noticed, and expressing one’s identity. This factor explained 7.94% of the variance. The third dimension was “Socialization” because it relates to interaction with friends, family, and networking. This dimension accounted for 6.72% of the variance. The fourth dimension was named “Recreation” because it is related to escaping from reality and relaxing. This dimension captured 4.91% of the variance.

Segmentation by Instagram user motivations

A K-means segmentation has been used to analyze the different segments based on Instagram usage. See Table 3. The three-cluster solution was examined using a dendrogram, which supported the presence of three distinct groupings. See Appendix B in S2 Appendix.

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Table 3. Segmentation by Instagram user motivations.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354487.t003

According to Table 3, the first segment was labeled “Enthusiasts” because it had high scores across all motivations, making it a group excited to use Instagram for all the reasons included in this study. This segment particularly values Instagram’s benefits of self-expression and recreation, seeking a high and proactive presence on the platform. The second group, “Observers,” showed high motivation levels related to socialization, curiosity, creativity, and documentation. However, motivations related to self-expression and recreation were less important, differentiating them from the Enthusiast segment. This group is more motivated to follow what others are doing than to share images, activities, or personal memories. The third segment was called “Passive” because it scored low on all motivations, indicating that they use Instagram but not much or have limited interest.

On the other hand, the Kruskal-Wallis test showed significant results below 0.05 for all items, meaning there was a significant difference between the means of the three segments, indicating that the segments are distinct. However, this test does not indicate where those significant differences lie. The Mann-Whitney U test was used for that purpose, and it showed significant differences below 0.05 in all the combinations of two segments (Segment 1 and Segment 2; Segment 2 and Segment 3; Segment 1 and Segment 3). This indicated a significant difference in all two-segment combinations for each item.

Relationship between Instagram user segmentation and satisfaction and loyalty

The Chi-square test was used to analyze whether significant relationships existed between the segments, the satisfaction variables, and the intentions to recommend. See Table 4.

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Table 4. Relationship of the segments with satisfaction and loyalty.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354487.t004

According to the results in Table 4, the “Enthusiasts” segment showed the highest level of satisfaction and loyalty based on their intention to recommend Instagram. This result is not surprising given the diversity of motivations linked to this segment, which should be the focus of marketing policies for organizations on this platform. This is due to this group’s proactivity in recommending the social network and the viral effects that might be associated with these recommendations.

Relationship of the segments with socio-economic and demographic variables

The chi-square test was used to test whether segment membership is statistically associated with socio-economic and demographic attributes, revealing systematic differences in how these characteristics are distributed across segments. See Table 5.

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Table 5. Relationship of the segments with socio-economic and demographic variables.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354487.t005

According to Table 5, Chi-square tests showed significant associations between segment membership and age (χ² = 19.63, p = .012); marital status (χ² = 13.40, p = .009); occupation (χ² = 22.84, p = .001); monthly income (χ² = 18.73, p = .005); and time of Instagram use (χ² = 52.58, p < .001), indicating non‑random distributions of socio‑demographic characteristics and usage intensity across segments.

“Spectators” skew younger (18–23: 70.5%) compared with “Enthusiasts” (49.5%) and “Passives” (62.6%). “Enthusiasts” show relatively higher representation in the 24–29 (29.7% vs. 13.2–16.5%) and 30–35 brackets (13.5% vs. 5.4–9.6%), suggesting a comparatively older profile. “Spectators” are most likely to be single (87.6%), whereas “Enthusiasts” include a larger share of married users (22.5%). “Spectators” and “Passives” are predominantly students (69.0% and 69.6%, respectively), while “Enthusiasts” include more private (37.8%) and public employees (9.9%), consistent with a more established occupational profile. Lower income levels (<USD 500) are most prevalent among “Passives” (74.8%) and “Spectators” (71.3%), and least prevalent among “Enthusiasts” (56.8%). The “Enthusiasts” segment had the highest percentage of people spending more than 60 minutes on Instagram daily, making this segment the most engaged social media platform.