https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9902-0639
Figures
Abstract
Foxtail millet is a nutritionally rich and climate-resilient cereal crop; however, poor germination and weak early seedling growth often limit its productivity. This study evaluated the effects of seed priming on germination, seedling vigor, yield attributes, and grain yield of foxtail millet through laboratory and field experiments. In the laboratory study, four foxtail millet varieties were subjected to six priming chemicals at two concentrations each, along with hydropriming and an unprimed control. Seed priming significantly influenced all germination and seedling vigor traits. The highest germination percentage (86.44%) and germination index (116.49), were recorded under NaCl priming at 10000 ppm. Maximum seedling vigor index (6.08), speed of emergence (86.51), germination energy (61.63) were achieved with NaOCl at 500 ppm, while the lowest germination performance occurred under CaCl2 at 20000 ppm. The shortest time to 50% germination (T50 = 1.55 days), mean germination time (MGT = 4.54 days) and seedling vigor index were obtained from no priming, while the longest T50 (2.0 days) and MGT (4.78 days) were recorded with KNO3 at 30000 ppm. The longest shoot (3.76 cm) and shoot dry weight (28.96 mg) were obtained with KNO3 at 15000 ppm, while the longest root (3.92 cm) and seedling length (7.51 cm) were recorded under NaOCl at 1000 ppm. The lowest shoot length (2.18 cm), root length (2.08 cm), seedling length (4.26 cm), shoot (12.03 mg), root (10.66 mg) and seedling (22.69 mg) dry weight were obtained from no priming. Based on laboratory performance, selected treatments were evaluated under field conditions. During the winter season, the highest grain (2.72 t ha-1) and straw (5.03 t ha-1) were recorded from BARI Kaon-2 × NaCl (10000 ppm). The highest grain yield obtained under this treatment combination was due to the production of the highest values for ear length (17.83 cm), ear weight (14.30 g), filled grains ear-1 (2918.33) and 1000-grain weight (2.56 g). Whereas, the lowest grain yield (1.17 t ha-1) was given by BARI Kaon-1 × no priming. In the summer season, the highest grain yield (3.93 t ha-1) was obtained from BARI Kaon-1 × NaCl (10000 ppm) this was due to the production of the higher values for most of the yield attributes by this treatment combination. In summer season, the lowest grain yield was obtained from BARI Kaon-4 × no priming. In conclusion, BARI Kaon-2 × NaCl (10000 ppm) performed best during the winter season, whereas BARI Kaon-1 × NaCl (10000 ppm) exhibited superior performance during the summer season. Seed priming with NaCl (10000 ppm) emerged as a seasonally robust strategy to improve germination, crop establishment, and yield of foxtail millet in Bangladesh.
Citation: Islam AKMM, Khatun T, Bipra PC, Sazzad M, Roy TK, Rana MM, et al. (2026) Seed priming-induced enhancement in seed germination, Seedling vigor, and productivity of foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.) in winter and summer seasons under Bangladesh conditions. PLoS One 21(4): e0348288. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348288
Editor: Faiz Ahmad Joyia, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, PAKISTAN
Received: February 6, 2026; Accepted: April 14, 2026; Published: April 29, 2026
Copyright: © 2026 Islam et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.
Funding: This research was funded by Bangladesh Agricultural University Research System (BAURES), grant number 2024/106/BAU. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: None.
1. Introduction
Foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.) is an important small millet crop known for its ability to thrive in various ecological conditions, its low input needs, and its resilience to stresses like drought and high temperatures [1,2]. This crop is a nutritionally rich, gluten-free cereal valued for its high protein, dietary fiber, and essential minerals such as iron, calcium, and potassium. It also has notable antioxidant properties, making it a key food source to help fight malnutrition in Bangladesh and other areas facing similar dietary issues [3].
Millets are mainly grown in northern, north-western, central, and hilly regions of Bangladesh, with 9.3 thousand hectares cultivated in the fiscal year 2020–2021, resulting in a total production of 9.6 thousand metric tons [4]. However, in the last decade, the area and production of millets have dropped significantly, decreasing by 73% and 19%, respectively since 2010 [4]. Despite its potential to aid in climate-resilient agriculture, diversify cereal-based cropping systems, and foster sustainable farming on marginal lands, foxtail millet remains underutilized in Bangladesh [4].
A major challenge in growing foxtail millet is poor seed quality, which often leads to low and uneven germination, weak plant establishment, and reduced crop density [5,6]. These issues become more apparent during the winter and summer seasons in Bangladesh, where varying temperatures, moisture levels, and soil conditions negatively impact early crop growth [7]. Since strong seedling growth is crucial for final yield, improving germination and early growth is essential for boosting millet productivity [8].
Seed priming is a treatment applied before sowing that involves controlled watering to start the physiological and biochemical processes needed for germination while inhibiting radicle emergence [9]. This method has been shown to boost germination rates, shorten germination time, and enhance seedling vigor in cereals and millets. Different priming methods, such as hydropriming, osmopriming, and chemical priming, have shown beneficial effects on enzyme activity, membrane repair, and metabolic efficiency, which lead to better early growth and stress tolerance [10]. However, the effectiveness of seed priming is greatly affected by the crop’s genotype, the type of priming agent used, and the environmental conditions, underscoring the need for region-specific studies. In Bangladesh, research on seed priming for foxtail millet is limited, especially regarding the comparison of various priming agents in laboratory settings and their validation in field conditions [4]. Furthermore, seasonal differences between winter and summer periods may affect how well priming treatments work because of variations in temperature, humidity, and soil moisture. Thus, it is crucial to identify a potential priming agent that reliably enhances seed performance across different seasons for practical field applications.
This study aimed to fill these knowledge gaps using a systematic approach. First, laboratory experiments were conducted to examine the effects of various seed priming agents on germination traits and seedling vigor in foxtail millet. The field experiments sought to evaluate the impact of selected seed priming agent on growth, yield components, and grain yield in the specific agro-climatic conditions of Bangladesh. The findings from this research are expected to offer practical insights into seed priming methods for foxtail millet and support the creation of low-cost, farmer-friendly techniques to enhance crop establishment, growth, and yield.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Experimental site and duration
The laboratory experiment was conducted at the Agro-Innovation Laboratory (24°43’24.0852“, 90°26’11.8572”), while the two field experiments were conducted at the Agronomy Field Laboratory of Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh, during the winter (24°43’11.103”, 90°25’36.6168”) and summer (24°43’11.91”, 90°25’43.9818”) season (October 2024 – May 2025). The experimental field is located in the Old Brahmaputra Floodplain (AEZ-9) of Bangladesh which is characterized by fertile alluvial soils suitable for millet cultivation.
Both the field experiments were conducted in adjacent fields rather than the same field. The field belongs to non-calcareous dark-grey floodplain soil. The land was medium high land and the soil was silty-loam and moderately fertile. The analytical soil properties of both experimental fields have been presented in Table 1, which show no significant differences. The climate of the locality was tropical in nature characterized by high temperature, high humidity and heavy precipitation with occasional gusty winds in summer season (mid-March – mid-October) scanty rainfall associated with moderately low average air temperature, relative humidity, rainfall and sunshine in winter season (mid-October – mid-March) (Table 2).
2.2. Experimental design and layout
2.2.1. Priming under control laboratory (Expt.#1).
This experiment was a factorial one, and the treatments comprised four foxtail millet varieties – BARI kaon-1 (V1), BARI kaon-2 (V2), BARI kaon-3 (V3) and BARI kaon-4 (V4), and six priming agents with two concentrations each, including a control (without priming) and hydropriming – No priming (P0), Hydropriming (P1) 15000 ppm KNO3 (P2), 30000 ppm KNO3 (P3), 40000 ppm Mannitol (P4), 60000 ppm Mannitol (P5), 10000 ppm NaCl (P6), 20000 ppm NaCl (P7), 100 ppm PEG (P8), 150 ppm PEG (P9), 500 ppm NaOCl (P10), 1000 ppm NaOCl (P11), 10000 ppm CaCl2 (P12) 20000 ppm CaCl2 (P13). The experiment was laid out following a completely randomized design with four replications.
2.2.2. Field experiments (Expt.#2 and #3).
Both field experiments were laid out in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The treatments were the same in both experiments; the only difference was the growing season. The priming agents were selected based on laboratory experiments that showed the best performance. Both the two factorial experiments comprised four foxtail millet varieties – BARI kaon-1 (V1), BARI kaon-2 (V2), BARI kaon-3 (V3) and BARI kaon-4 (V4), and four priming treatments viz.; no priming – Control (T0), hydropriming (T1), 30000 ppm KNO3 (T2), 10000 ppm NaCl (T3).
2.3. Experimental materials
Four foxtail millet varieties viz., BARI kaon-1, BARI kaon-2, BARI kaon-3, and BARI kaon-4 released by Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), Gazipur, Bangladesh were used as experimental materials. The details of the foxtail millet varieties are presented in Table 3. Seeds were collected from the Regional Agricultural Research Station, BARI, Jamalpur. Seeds were visually inspected and only healthy, uniform, and disease-free seeds were selected to ensure good germination and uniform crop stand.
Laboratory grade priming agents were used in all the experiments. Details of the priming agents are presented in Table 4.
2.4. Preparation of priming solutions
All priming solutions were prepared using analytical-grade chemicals and distilled water. Seeds and solution ratio was 1:5 (g L-1), which allowed for 500 seeds to be fully submerged during the soaking process. The specific amount of solute, in weight or concentration, required for each priming solution was calculated to achieve the target ppm.
2.5. Priming procedure
The seeds for each treatment were soaked in the priming solutions for 16 hrs at room temperature (25 ± 2 °C) in the laboratory because the germination starting time of foxtail millet seeds calculated was 32 hrs without any treatment uses, and for hydropriming seeds samples were soaked only in distilled water. After that the soaked seeds were rinsed thoroughly with distilled water for three times. The rinsed seeds were then laid on clean, sterile tissue paper and dried under air at room temperature to return to their original weight and moisture content. When seeds were dry, they were placed in zipper-sealed plastic bags with the label containing (variety name, treatment and replication number). Then the treated seeds were kept in a refrigerator at 4 ± 2°C for 15 days to stabilize the physiological status of priming, and the seeds became back to the metabolic equilibrium but didn’t lose the effects of priming [11,12]. At the end of the storage, the seeds were used for the germination and seedling growth tests. The control seed were not subjected to any priming treatment but were handled under the same conditions as primed seeds. After priming and storage, the treated seeds were subjected to germination and seedling growth evaluation in case of experiment # 1, and sown in the experimental plots in case of Experiment #2 and #3.
2.6. Petri dish preparation and growth medium
Sterilized sand served as the germination medium, and the seeds were placed in plastic Petri dishes (90 mm × 15 mm). Sand was moistened with distilled water before sowing and during the experiment. Regular watering was done to maintain optimum moisture condition.
2.7. Seed sowing and replications
From each treatment × variety combination, 400 seeds were taken from the primed 500 seeds and divided into four replications, with each replication consisting of 100 seeds. Thus, 100 seeds were placed in each Petri dish. The seeds were evenly distributed over the sand surface to ensure uniform exposure to moisture and aeration. The experiment was carried out following ISTA [13] guidelines with necessary modifications.
2.8. Germination monitoring
Seeds were kept at room temperature 25 ± 1°C under normal light to facilitate germination for 7 days. Seed germination was recorded up to 7 days, starting from the second day after sowing (DAS). A seed was taken as germinated when the radicle emerged out of the seed coat and the tip of the radicle was 2 mm or more in length [13]. The number of germinated seeds was recorded each day for each Petri dish, and this was used to calculate the germination percentage and the mean germination time.
2.9. Data recorded (Experiment # 1)
All the germinations indices were calculated as per the equations described by Islam and Kato-Noguchi [14].
2.9.1. Germination percentage.
Germination percentage (GP) was calculated as the number of seeds which was germinated within 7 days as a proportion of number of seeds shown in each treatment.
2.9.2. Mean germination time.
Mean germination time (MGT) was calculated according to the equation described below:
where n = number of seeds germinated on day d, and d = number of days from the start of the test.
2.9.4. Seedling vigor index.
On the seventh day after seed placement for germination, five seedlings were randomly selected from each replicate. The root and shoot lengths were measured. Vigor index (VI) was calculated from total germination and seedlings length by using the formulae:
2.9.5. Coefficient of the rate of germination.
Coefficient of the rate of germination (CRG) provides a comparative measure of germination speed:
Where, N = number of seeds germinated on day D, and D = respective days.
2.9.6. Time required for 50% germination.
Time required for 50% germination calculated as per the following equation:
Where, N is the final number of germination and ,
cumulative numbers of seeds germinated by adjacent counts at times
and
when
2.9.7. Speed of emergence.
Calculated as per the following equation:
Where, n = number of seedlings emerged on day t, t = days from seed set for germination
2.10. Crop husbandry (Experiment # 2 & 3)
The experimental filed was prepared by repeated ploughing followed by laddering to obtain a fine tilth, and all weeds and crop residues were removed. Fertilizers were applied at the recommended rates of 170, 125, 90, 55 and 4 kg ha ⁻ ¹ urea, triple super phosphate (TSP), muriate of potash (MoP), gypsum, and zinc sulphate, respectively. All fertilizers except urea were applied as basal doses during final land preparation. Urea was applied in two equal splits at 7 and 35 days after sowing (DAS), with an additional 40 kg ha-1 applied at 55 DAS in Exp.#2 due to reduced plant growth under low temperature. This additional urea application in the winter season was to compensate for reduced plant growth under lower temperature conditions and ensure normal growth. As treatments were compared within each season under uniform management, the potential confounding effect was minimized. In Exp.#2, seeds were sown on 17 December 2024 in rows spaced at 25 cm × 5 cm. Weed control was achieved through three manual weedings at 35, 55, and 75 DAS. Two light irrigations were applied at 45 and 90 DAS. In Exp.#3, seeds were sown on 09 March 2025 in rows, maintaining a plant density similar to Exp.#2. Weedings were carried out at 30, and 45 DAS. No additional urea or irrigation was applied in Exp.#3. No plant protection measures were required in either experiment, as no insect or disease infestation was observed. The crops were harvested on 07 April 2025 (Exp.#2) and 23 May 2025 (Exp.#3). Five hills aside from the border hill were chosen at random from each plot in order to record required data on different yield contributing characteristics. The harvested crop from each plot was then taken to the threshing floor after being individually wrapped and appropriately tagged. To determine each plot’s grain yield, the grains were cleaned and weighed. Grain yield at 14% moisture content was recorded on a plot basis after proper threshing, cleaning, and drying. The yield obtained from each plot was converted to ton per hectare (t ha ⁻ ¹) for statistical analysis. The straw yield was also recorded after separating the grains. Straw from each plot was sun-dried and weighed and was converted to t ha ⁻ ¹.
2.12. Statistical analysis
The collected data were compiled and tabulated. All data were subjected to two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) through the utilization of “doebioresearch” package in “R studio” software (version 2025.09.2 + 418) to evaluate the main effects of variety and priming treatments, as well as their interaction effects. The factors included four foxtail millet varieties and fourteen seed priming treatments, resulting in 56 treatment combinations. Prior to ANOVA, the assumption of normality and homogeneity of variance were tested using the Shapiro-Wilk test. When significant differences were detected (p ≤ 0.05), mean separation was performed using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test at the 5% level of significance. We visualized Heatmap by using “ggplot2” and “metan” package. The PCA was analyzed by “FactoMineR” and “factoextra” package and cluster analysis was by “FactoMineR”, “factoextra” and “cluster” package in R studio (version 2025.09.2 + 418).
3. Results
3.1. Effects of variety on seed germination of seed and seedling vigor
The germination percentage of foxtail millet varied significantly among varieties (Table 5). The maximum germination (%) demonstrated at BARI Kaon-1 (73.02%) followed by BARI Kaon-2 (71.09%). Similar pattern showed for germination index and germination energy, maximum germination index observed at BARI Kaon-1 (100.18) followed by BARI Kaon-2 (97.61). Whereas, germination energy of BARI Kaon-1 and BARI Kaon-2 was 53.41 and 51.70, respectively. Time required for 50% germination and mean germination time also varied significantly. BARI Kaon-3 required longest time for 50% germination and mean germination time (Table 5). Other varieties showed statistically identical results. BARI Kaon-1, BARI Kaon-2, and BARI Kaon-4 exhibited maximum and identical coefficient of rate of germination. The highest seedling vigor was exhibited highest at BARI Kaon-3 (4.88) followed by BARI Kaon-2 (4.63). The maximum speed of seedling emergence was observed at BARI Kaon-4 (77.59).
The highest shoot, root and seedling length exhibited at BARI Kaon-3 (3.56, 3.44 and 7.01 cm, respectively) followed by BARI Kaon-2 for shoot and seedling length, and BARI Kaon-4 for root length. BARI Kaon-3 (42.95 mg) and BARI Kaon-4 (39.37 mg) showed highest seedling dry weight (Table 6). The maximum shoot dry weight (mg) was exhibited by BARI Kaon-3 (21.81 mg). Root dry weight exhibited non-significant difference. BARI Kaon-1 exhibited the maximum shoot and root ratio, which was statistically identical with BARI Kaon-2 and BARI Kaon-4, while BARI Kaon-3 has the lowest shoot and root ratio (Table 6).
3.2. Effects of priming agent on seed germination and seedling vigor of foxtail millet
The effects of seed priming agent exhibited significance difference among treatments throughout all studied parameters (Table 7, 8). The highest germination (%) of foxtail millet was found in 10000 ppm NaCl (86.44%) was statistically identical with 60000 ppm Mannitol (83.19%), 20000 ppm NaCl (83.06%) and 100 ppm PEG (82.06%) (Table 7). The minimum germination (%) was observed at 20000 ppm CaCl2 (36.63%). The maximum index of germination was exhibited at 10000 ppm NaCl (116.49) and was at par with 20000 ppm NaCl (109.79) and 100 ppm PEG (109.90), while minimum germination index was demonstrated at 20000 ppm CaCl2 (47.59). Moreover, more time required for 50 percent germination was found at 30000 ppm KNO3 (2.00 days) followed by 2000 ppm NaCl (1.93 days), whereas minimum time required for 50% germination was at no priming (1.55 days) and this value was statistically identical with15000 ppm KNO3 (1.59 days), hydro-priming (1.60 days), 40000 ppm mannitol (1.67 days), 10000 ppm NaCl (1.65 days) and 20000 ppm CaCl2 (1.66 days) (Table 7). The longest time required for germination was at 30000 ppm KNO3 (4.78 days) followed by 1000 ppm NaOCl (4.76 days) and 20000 ppm CaCl2 (4.75 days), whereas the shortest time required for germination was no priming (4.54 days) and hydropriming (4.56 days). The maximum coefficient rate of germination was found at no priming (22.01) and hydropriming (21.91), whereas minimum was observed at 30000 ppm KNO3 (20.93) and was at par with 1000 ppm NaOCl (20.99) and 20000 ppm CaCl2 (21.06) (Table 7). The highest seedling vigor index was observed at 500 ppm NaOCl (6.08), that was statistically similar with 100 ppm PEG (5.91), 1000 ppm NaOCl (5.66), 10000 ppm CaCl2 (5.82), but the lowest seedling vigor index was observed at no priming (2.28) followed by 60000 ppm mannitol (2.40). The maximum speed of emergence was found at no priming (91.24) followed by hydropriming (85.71) and 500 ppm NaOCl (86.51). The germination energy was found highest at 500 ppm NaOCl (61.63) which was statistically similar with 150 ppm PEG (61.06), 10000 ppm NaCl (60.44), 15000 KNO3 (57.50) and 40000 ppm mannitol (56.94), while 20000 ppm CaCl2 was showed lowest germination energy (Table 7).
The highest shoot length (cm) was exhibited at 15000 ppm KNO3 (3.76 cm) which was statistically similar with 40000 ppm mannitol (3.61 cm), 60000 ppm mannitol (3.56 cm), 10000 ppm NaCl (3.52 cm), 20000 ppm NaCl (3.59 cm), 100 ppm PEG (3.53 cm) and 10000 ppm CaCl2 (3.50 cm) (Table 7). In addition, the minimum shoot length was exhibited at no priming (2.18 cm) followed by 15000 ppm KNO3 (2.44 cm). The longest root was obtained at 1000 ppm NaOCl (3.92 cm), which was statistically identical with 40000 ppm mannitol (3.74 cm) and 100 ppm PEG (3.60 cm), whereas the shortest root-length was exhibited by hydropriming (1.91 cm) the value was at par with no priming (2.08 cm) (Table 7). The longest seedling was observed at 1000 ppm NaOCl (7.51 cm) and was statistically identical with 40000 ppm mannitol (7.35 cm), 10000 ppm NaCl (7.03 cm) and 100 ppm PEG (7.13 cm) (Table 7), whereas the shortest seedling was found at no priming (4.26 cm) closely followed by 15000 ppm KNO3 (4.35 cm).
The highest shoot dry weight was observed at 15000 ppm KNO3 (28.96 mg) and it was statistically similar with 30000 ppm KNO3 (26.27 mg) and 40000 ppm mannitol (25.42 mg), while minimum shoot dry weight was observed at no priming (12.03 mg) that was at par with hydropriming (15.66 mg), 100 ppm PEG (12.94 mg) and 20000 ppm CaCl2 (13.75 mg). The maximum root dry weight was demonstrated at 40000 ppm mannitol (41.61 mg) and minimum was observed at no priming (10.66 mg), hydropriming (13.90 mg), 500 ppm NaOCl (10.79 mg) and 1000 ppm NaOCl (14.72 mg) and they were statistically identical (Table 7). The highest seedling dry weight was exhibited at 40000 ppm mannitol (67.02 mg), while the lowest one in no priming (22.69 mg) and the value was statistically identical with 100 ppm PEG (25.24 mg) and hydropriming (29.56 mg). The maximum root and shoot ratio was found in 20000 ppm CaCl2 (1.71), while the minimum value was observed under hydropriming (0.9), which did not differ significantly from 20000 ppm NaCl (0.74) and 500 ppm NaOCl (0.54).
3.3. Interaction effects of priming agent and varieties on different seed germination indices and seedling vigor
The interaction effects of variety and priming agent exhibited significant difference among all studied traits (Figs 1 and 2). The maximum germination (%) was observed at V1P10, V1P3, V1P6, V1P7, V2P5, V2P6, V2P7, V2P8, V3P2, V3P3, V3P4, V3P5, V4P5, V4P6, V4P7, V4P8 and V4P9. The minimum germination was found at interaction effects of V1P13, V2P13, V3P13, V3P11 and V4P13. The highest germination index was observed at V1P10, V2P2, V2P10, V2P7, V2P6 and V4P4 and minimum was V1P13, V3P13, V3P11 and V4P13 interaction effects. The maximum time needed for 50% seed germination was demonstrated at V1P13, V2P1, V3P13 and V4P11. The maximum mean germination time required at V1P7, V1P13, V2P9, V2P5 and V4P11 whereas the minimum was found at V1P0, V1P1, V1P8, V2P0, V3P1, V4P0, V4P1, V4P10 and V4P13. The coefficient rate of the germination was found maximum at V2P0, V4P10, V4P12 and V4P13, while the minimum was observed at V1P13, V1P7, V2P9, V2P5 and V4P11. The maximum seed vigor index was exhibited at V2P7 and V3P4, while minimum was at V1P0, V1P13, V2P0, V3P13, V4P1 and V4P13.
Here, BARI Kaon-1 (V1); BARI Kaon-2 (V2); BARI Kaon-3 (V3); BARI Kaon-4 (V4); No priming (P0); Hydropriming (P1); 15000 ppm KNO3 (P2); 30000 ppm KNO3 (P3); 40000 ppm Mannitol (P4); 60000 ppm Mannitol (P5); 10000 ppm NaCl (P6); 20000 ppm NaCl (P7); 100 ppm PEG (P8); 150 ppm PEG (P9); 500 ppm NaOCl (P10); 1000 ppm NaOCl (P11); 10000 ppm CaCl2 (P12); 20000 ppm CaCl2 (P13); ** = Significant at 0.01 level of probability.
Here, BARI Kaon-1 (V1); BARI Kaon-2 (V2); BARI Kaon-3 (V3); BARI Kaon-4 (V4); No priming (P0); Hydropriming (P1); 15000 ppm KNO3 (P2); 30000 ppm KNO3 (P3); 40000 ppm Mannitol (P4); 60000 ppm Mannitol (P5); 10000 ppm NaCl (P6); 20000 ppm NaCl (P7); 100 ppm PEG (P8); 150 ppm PEG (P9); 500 ppm NaOCl (P10); 1000 ppm NaOCl (P11); 10000 ppm CaCl2 (P12); 20000 ppm CaCl2 (P13); ** = Significant at 0.01 level of probability.
The maximum speed of seed emergence was found at the interaction effects of V1P8, V2P0, V4P10, V4P13, while the minimum speed of seed emergence was observed interaction effects of V1P13, V2P5 and V4P11. The germination energy was found maximum at V1P10, V2P2, V2P6 and V2P10 while minimum was at V1P13, V2P1, V3P11, V3P13, V4P11 and V4P13. The longest shoot length was exhibited at the interaction effects of V2P10, V2P2, V2P13, V3P4 and V2P6 while the minimum was demonstrated at the interaction effects of V1P0, V2P0 and V4P1. The longest root was demonstrated at interaction effects of V1P0, V1P13, V2P0, V3P13, V4P1 and V4P13 whereas the shortest roots was found at V1P0, V1P1, V1P7, V2P0, V3P2 and V4P1. Moreover, the longest seedling was demonstrated at the interaction effect of V1P11, V2P10, V2P11, V3P10, V3P11 and V3P4 while shortest seedling was found V1P0, V2P0 and V4P1. The highest shoot dry weight was observed at the interaction effects of V1P4, V2P10, V3P3 and V4P4, while lowest shoot dry was found at V1P0, V1P11, V1P13, V1P8, V1P9, V2P0, V2P11, V4P11 and V4P13. The maximum root dry weight was demonstrated at the interaction effects of V1P4, V1P2, V2P4, V2P3, V3P3, V4P4 and V4P2 while minimum was at V1P11, V1P12, V1P13, V2P0, V3P7, V4P1, V4P8 and V4P11. The maximum seedling dry weight was exhibited at the interaction effects of V1P4, V1P2, V2P4, V2P3, V3P3 and V4P4, whereas minimum was at V1P0, V1P11, V1P12, V1P13, V2P0, V4P11 and V4P8. The highest ratio of root and shoot was demonstrated at the interaction effects of V1P0, V2P11, V2P12 and V4P13.
3.4. Principal component analysis
For the analysis of principal component (PCA) explained principal component (PC) number and variances. The first PC1 explained along 43.6% variability and then gradually decreased. The 2nd PC2 explained 29.8% variability and PC3 explained 14.3% of variability (Fig 3). So, first two principal components together showed 73.6% of explained variables (Fig 3). Moreover, from the graphical presentation it was exhibited that PC1 showed maximum variation, so selecting treatments and traits from PC1 are more useful.
The contribution analysis of the PCA exhibited that Dim1 was mainly driven by seedling growth related traits which includes shoot, root and seedling length, time required for 50% germination, MGT and biomass traits (shoot, root and seedling dry weight). These variables formed long vectors with high cos2 values. Furthermore, Dim2 was dominated by early germination traits, particularly germination (%), germination energy, germination index and seed vigor index. The PCA-biplot, revealed clear separation patterns among treatments. Treatments P5, P6, P7, P8 and P9 clustered near the vectors for germination vigor traits (Fig 4 and Fig 5). Treatment P2, P3 and P4 were exhibited toward the positive side of Dim1, correlating them with strong early seedling growth and biomass accumulation.
Here, No priming (P0); Hydropriming (P1); 15000 ppm KNO3 (P2); 30000 ppm KNO3 (P3); 40000 ppm Mannitol (P4); 60000 ppm Mannitol (P5); 10000 ppm NaCl (P6); 20000 ppm NaCl (P7); 100 ppm PEG (P8); 150 ppm PEG (P9); 500 ppm NaOCl (P10); 1000 ppm NaOCl (P11); 10000 ppm CaCl2 (P12); 20000 ppm CaCl2 (P13); ** = Significant at 0.01 level of probability.
3.5. Yield attributes and yield of foxtail millet in winter season
3.5.1. Effect of varieties.
The effect of variety on all yield contributing characters and yield foxtail millet except ear weight was statistically significant. The longest ear was produced by BARI kaon-2 (15.54 cm) and the shortest panicle was by BARI Kaon-4 (13.23 cm) (Table 9). The highest number of filled grain ear-1 was produced by BARI Kaon-2 (2753.75) which was statistically similar with BARI Kaon-3 (2657.92). The maximum 1000 grain weight was observed at BARI Kaon-2 (2.51 g) whereas the minimum was at BARI Kaon-3 (2.17 g). The highest grain yield was obtained from BARI Kaon-3 (2.35 t ha-1) which was statistically identical with BARI Kaon-4 (2.27 t ha-1), but the lowest one was obtained from BARI Kaon-1 (1.81 t ha-1). The highest straw yield was produced at BARI Kaon-2 (4.54 t ha-1) and lowest was at BARI Kaon-1 (3.39 t ha-1). BARI Kaon-3 (36.64%) showed maximum harvest index, while BARI Kaon-2 (32.66%) showed the minimum (Table 9).
3.5.2. Effect of priming agent.
Priming agent had significant effect on all the yield contributing characters and yield of foxtail millet. Priming agent 10000 ppm NaCl treated plot (15.90 cm) exhibited the longest ear, while no priming plot (12.83 cm) produced shortest ear which was statistically identical with hydro priming (13.39) treated plot (Table 10). The maximum ear weight was observed at 10000 ppm NaCl (13.84 g) priming plot, which was statistically similar with 30000 ppm KNO3 (12.87 g) treated plot (Table 4). The minimum ear weight was exhibited at no priming plot (12.83 g) and which was statistically identical with hydro priming treated plot. The number of filled grain ear-1, was produced highest at 10000 ppm NaCl (2864.83) treated plot and lowest was at no priming (2357.33) plot. The 1000-grain weight was found maximum at 10000 ppm NaCl (2.39 g) treated plot, while the minimum was at no priming (2.28 g) and that was at par with hydro priming (2.29 g). The highest grain yield was obtained from 10000 ppm NaCl (2.48 t ha-1) treated plot, whereas the minimum was from no priming plot (1.81 t ha-1). The highest straw yield was produced at 10000 ppm NaCl (4.25 t ha-1) treated plot and which was statistically identical with 30000 ppm KNO3 (4.11 t ha-1) plot and was statistically identical with hydro priming (4.12 t ha-1) priming plot (Table 4). The maximum harvest index was exhibited at 10000 ppm NaCl (37.09%) priming plot and minimum was at no priming (32.83%) plot, which was statistically similar with hydro priming (33.28%) plot (Table 10).
3.5.3. Interaction effect of variety and priming agent.
The interaction effect of variety and priming agent on the yield attributes and yield of foxtail millet was also statistically significant. The longest ear was produced from BARI Kaon-2 when primed with 10000 ppm NaCl (17.83 cm), while the lowest one from BARI Kaon-4 with no priming (11.77 cm). The highest ear weight was observed at BARI Kaon-2 treated with 10000 ppm NaCl (14.30 g), which was statistically identical with BARI Kaon-4 × 10000 ppm NaCl (13.77 g), BARI Kaon-1 × 10000 ppm NaCl (13.75 g), BARI Kaon-3 × 30000 ppm KNO3 (13.74 g), BARI Kaon-3 × 10000 ppm NaCl (13.53 g), BARI Kaon-1 × 30000 ppm KNO3 (13.21 g) and BARI Kaon-3 × 30000 ppm KNO3 (12.64 g), while the lowest one from BARI Kaon-1 × no priming (8.77 g). The highest number of filled grains ear-1 was produced at the interaction effects of BARI Kaon-3 × 10000 ppm NaCl (2947.33) that was at par with BARI Kaon-2 × 10000 ppm NaCl (2918.33), BARI Kaon-3 × 30000 ppm KNO3 (2838.67), BARI Kaon-4 and 10000 ppm NaCl (2810.00), BARI Kaon-1 × 10000 ppm NaCl (2783.67) and BARI Kaon-2 × 10000 ppm NaCl (2774.67). The lowest number of filled grains ear-1 was obtained from BARI Kaon-1 × no priming (2138.67) that was closely followed by BARI Kaon-1 × hydropriming (2227.00) treated plot (Table 5). The highest 1000-grain weight was found at BARI Kaon-2 × 10000 ppm NaCl (2.56 g), which was statistically similar with BARI Kaon-2 × 30000 ppm KNO3 (2.53 g). While the lowest one in BARI Kaon-3 × no priming (2.09 g) treated plot followed by BARI Kaon-3 × hydropriming (2.11 g) (Table 5). The maximum grain yield was obtained from BARI Kaon-2 × 10000 ppm NaCl (2.72 t ha-1) which was statistically similar with and BARI Kaon-4 × 10000 ppm NaCl (2.59 t ha-1) plot. The lowest grain yield was obtained from BARI Kaon-1 × no priming (1.17 t ha-1) plot. The interaction effect of BARI Kaon-2 × 10000 ppm NaCl (5.03 t ha-1) produced maximum straw yield closely followed by BARI Kaon-2 × hydro priming (4.63 t ha-1) treated plot. While the lowest straw yield was obtained from BARI Kaon-1 × no priming (2.51t ha-1) plot (Table 11). The maximum harvest index (%) was exhibited at the interaction effect of BARI Kaon-3 × 10000 ppm NaCl (39.04%), which was at par with BARI Kaon-4 × 10000 ppm NaCl (38.14%) and BARI Kaon-3 × 30000 ppm KNO3 (37.60%) treated plots (Table 11). Whereas the lowest harvest index was obtained in BARI Kaon-2 × hydropriming (30.36%) closely followed by BARI Kaon-2 × no priming (31.02%) plot.
3.6. Yield attributes and yield of foxtail millet in summer season
3.6.1. Effects of variety.
BARI kaon-1 (17.33 cm), BARI Kaon-2 (17.31 cm) and BARI Kaon-3 (15.81 cm) were produced longest ear and they were statistically identical, whereas the shortest panicle was produced by BARI Kaon-4 (12.61 cm). Ear weight of foxtail millet exhibited statistically non-significant variation among varieties (Table 12). The maximum number of filled grain ear-1 was produced at BARI Kaon-2 (2757.33) and which was statistically identical with BARI Kaon-4 (2719.25), whereas the minimum was at BARI Kaon-3 (2563.67). The highest 1000-grain weight was demonstrated at BARI Kaon-4 (2.51 g), BARI Kaon-2 (2.44 g) and BARI Kaon-3 (2.42 g) which were statistically identical, whereas the minimum was at BARI Kaon-1 (2.22 g). The highest grain yield was produced at BARI Kaon-1 (3.43 t ha-1) and which was statistically varied from other varieties. Statistically the highest straw yield was produced at BARI Kaon-1 (6.50 t ha-1) and BARI Kaon-2 (6.19 t ha-1). BARI Kaon-1 (34.47%) showed maximum harvest index (Table 12).
3.6.2. Effects of priming agent.
Priming agent NaCl treated plot (17.53 cm) and hydro priming (16.53 cm) exhibited the statistically identical and longest ear, whereas no priming plot (14.33 cm) produced shortest ear which was statistically identical with KNO3 (14.67 cm) treated plot (Table 13). The maximum ear height was observed at NaCl (7.92 g) priming plot and which was statistically varied from other priming plot (Table 13). The number of filled grain ear-1, was produced maximum at NaCl (2837.92) treated priming plot and which was statistically identical with KNO3 (2718.00) priming plot. The 1000 grain weight was found maximum at NaCl (2.86 g) treated priming plot, and which was statistically varied from others. The maximum grain yield was produced at NaCl (3.37 t ha-1) treated priming plot, which was statistically identical with KNO3 (6.04 t ha-1) priming plot, whereas the minimum was produced at no priming plot (2.39 t ha-1). The maximum straw yield was produced at NaCl (6.70 t ha-1) treated plot and which was statistically identical with KNO3 (6.04 t ha-1) and lowest was no priming (4.95 t ha-1) priming plot (Table 13). The harvest index showed non-significant variation among treatments.
3.6.3. Interaction effects of variety and priming agent.
The longest ear was produced at interaction of BARI Kaon-2 × 10000 ppm NaCl (18.89 cm) which was statistically similar with BARI Kaon-2 × hydro priming (18.67 cm), BARI Kaon-1 × 10000 ppm NaCl (18.44 cm), BARI Kaon-1 × 30000 ppm KNO3 (17.89 cm); BARI Kaon-1 × hydropriming (17.78 cm); BARI Kaon-3 × 10000 ppm NaCl (17.67 cm); BARI Kaon-3 × hydro priming (16.22 cm); BARI Kaon-2 × 30000 ppm KNO3 (15.89 cm); BARI Kaon-2 × no priming (15.78 cm); BARI Kaon-3 × hydro priming (16.22 cm) (Table 10). The highest ear weight was observed at the interaction effects of BARI Kaon-2 × 10000 ppm NaCl (9.39 g) which was at par with BARI Kaon-4 × no priming (8.34 g), BARI Kaon-4 × 10000 ppm NaCl (8.20 g), BARI Kaon-1 × 10000 ppm NaCl (7.86 g) × BARI Kaon-3 × 30000 ppm KNO3. Whereas, the lowest one was observed in BARI Kaon-1 × no priming (3.65 g). The highest number of filled grains ear-1 was produced at the interaction effects of BARI Kaon-1 × 10000 ppm NaCl (3080.00) which was statistically identical BARI Kaon-4 × 30000 ppm KNO3 (2869.33), BARI Kaon-2 × 30000 ppm KNO3 (2867.33), BARI Kaon-2 × 10000 ppm NaCl (2823.00), whereas BARI Kaon-1 × no priming produced the lowest (2310.00). Thousand grain weight found maximum at the interaction effect of BARI Kaon-3 × 10000 ppm NaCl (2.99 g) and the value was statistically identical with BARI Kaon-2 × 10000 ppm NaCl (2.88 g), BARI Kaon-4 × 10000 ppm NaCl (2.85 g), BARI Kaon-1 × 10000 ppm NaCl (2.71 g), BARI Kaon-4 × 30000 ppm KNO3 (2.49 g), BARI Kaon-3 × 30000 ppm KNO3 (2.48 g); BARI Kaon-4 × hydro priming (2.43 g) (Table 14). While the lightest seed was produced by BARI Kaon-1 × 30000 ppm KNO3 (1.80 g). The highest grain yield was produced by BARI Kaon-1 and × 10000 ppm NaCl (3.93 t ha-1) and the value was at par with BARI Kaon-4 × 30000 ppm KNO3 (3.45 t ha-1), BARI Kaon-1 × hydro priming (3.38 t ha-1), BARI Kaon-1 × 30000 ppm KNO3 (3.31 t ha-1), BARI Kaon-2 × 10000 ppm NaCl (3.25 t ha-1), BARI Kaon-3 × 10000 ppm NaCl (3.18 t ha-1), and BARI Kaon-4 × 10000 ppm NaCl (3.10 t ha-1), BARI Kaon-1 × no priming (3.07 t ha-1). The lowest grain yield was obtained from BARI Kaon-4 × no priming (1.63 t ha-1). The interaction effect of BARI Kaon-2 with 10000 ppm NaCl produced the highest straw yield (7.35 t ha-1), which statistically identical with BARI Kaon-1 × 10000 ppm NaCl (7.17 t ha-1), BARI Kaon-1 × KNO3 (6.70 t ha-1), BARI Kaon-1 × hydro priming (6.35 t ha-1), BARI Kaon-3 × NaCl (6.20 t ha-1), BARI Kaon-4 × 10000 ppm NaCl (6.08 t ha-1), BARI Kaon-4 × 30000 ppm KNO3 (6.03 t ha-1), BARI Kaon-1 × no priming (5.78 t ha-1), while the lowest one was found in BARI Kaon-4 × no priming (4.00 t ha-1). The highest harvest index was obtained from BARI Kaon-4 × 30000 ppm KNO3 (36.62%), and the lowest was from BARI Kaon-4 × no priming (29.16%) (Table 14).
4. Discussion
4.1. Varietal regulation of germination dynamics and seedling vigor
Significant varietal differences in germination percentage, germination index, germination energy, seedling vigor, length of seedling and dry weight of seedling observed in the present study clearly indicated strong generic control over early seed physiological quality in foxtail millet. The superior germination performance, growth characteristics and vigor of BARI Kaon-1 and BARI Kaon-2 reflects higher metabolic readiness, efficient enzymatic activation and also rapid mobilization of stored proteins and which are fundamental for successful stand establishment and also widely reported as determinants of early crop competitiveness in millets and cereals [15,16]. Conversely, BARI Kaon-3, despite slower germination, consistently exhibited greater shoot, root and seedling length, and dry biomass accumulation. This may be due to shift in carbon allocation toward post-germinative growth rather than rapid radicle protrusion, a strategy which associated with enhanced seedling resilience under sub-optimal field conditions. Similar trade-offs between germination speed and seedling growth have been documented in millets, sorghum and maize, where slower emergence is compensated by superior root systems and improved early vigor [15,16]. The maximum seedling vigor index and biomass of BARI Kaon-3 provide a physiological explanation for maximum grain yield and harvest index (Table 5). Although, BARI Kaon-4 demonstrated faster emergence but comparatively lower seedling biomass which indicated that rapid emergence alone does not confirm maximum yield potential, supported by Mahender et al. [17].
4.2. Physiological basis of seed priming effects on germination and early growth of foxtail millet
Germination of foxtail millet seed and seedling traits, influenced significantly by various seed priming treatments which confirming priming as an effective physiological intervention. Various osmopriming agents likes NaCl, PEG and mannitol markedly improved germination percentage, germination index as well as germination energy. Seeds primed with salt like KNO3 and NaCl reflect faster germination with less time required for 50% germination and total germination, seedling vigor index, germination index and germination energy due to increase the concentration of protein in seeds, consistently α-amylase, involvement in starch mobilization and use and catalase (ROS-scavengers) to protect plasma membrane from oxidative damage [18,19]. Controlled hydration during Osmo priming involved for initiation of pre germinative metabolic process such as DNA replication, ß-tubulin; antioxidant enzyme activation such as soluble sugar mechanism, reactive oxygen species and synthesis of hydrolytic enzymes while preventing radicle emergence [20,21]. The enhancement of reserve mobilization, activity of enzyme antioxidant defense mechanism and nutrient uptake together explain the observed increase in seedling vigor biomass production and stress tolerance [22]. Moreover, priming agent NaCl (10,000–20,000 ppm) exhibited strong positive response which induction of osmotic adjustment and stress signaling pathways and responsible seed metabolic efficiency even non-saline conditions. Cotyledon cell vacuolization promotes by priming which accumulate of storage proteins, and aquaporin gene expression pattern alters responsible for enhancement of overall performance of seeds including expression of stress related proteins [19]. Moreover, osmo-primed seeds boosted seedling dry weight, chlorophyll content, amylose activity, concentration of leaf calcium and total soluble sugars, which responsible for development of seedling and production of biomass [23]. Low level of salt priming has been shown to induce a form of “stress imprinting” improving membrane stability and enzymatic activity during germination [23]. Similarly, PEG-mediated osmotic priming enhanced seedling length and vigor by improving cell elongation and development of root system, these traits are crucial for early nutrition and water acquisition. In contrast, CaCl2 another salt reduced germination and vigor severely, which indicated the osmotic and ionic toxicity effects due to disruption of integrity membrane and enzyme function by excessive calcium ions resulting delayed or inhibited germination [20,23]. Moreover, NaOCl (500–1000 ppm) priming agent significantly improved seedling vigor index and germination energy, likely due to seed surface sterilization, reduced pathogen and enhanced oxygen diffusion. Enhanced shoot and root elongation under NaOCl treatment further supports its role in improving early seedling health [24]. So, appropriate and optimizing priming concentration can play a significant role for enhancement of seed germination and related traits.
4.3. Interaction effects of variety and priming agent in response to germination dynamics and growth
The significant interaction between foxtail millet varieties and priming agents across all germination and seedling traits demonstrates that priming efficiency depends on genotype. Particularly BARI Kaon-2 × NaCl, BARI Kaon-3 × PEG and BARI Kaon-3 × NaOCl consistently produced superior germination, seedling vigor and biomass. Such type of genotype specific responses has been widely reported in cereals, where variation in seed coat permeability, reserve composition and hormonal sensitivity determines the efficacy of priming agents [15,20]. Moreover, the inferior performance of CaCl2 priming consistently across foxtail millet varieties further confirms that not all priming agents are universally suitable.
4.4. Multivariate interpretation of seed germination and seedling traits
Furthermore, the principal component analysis (PCA) provided strong multivariate confirmation of priming effects. The first two principal components (PC) together explained 73.6% of total variability. Similar findings also reported by [25,26]. PC1 was strongly correlated with seedling growth and biomass traits (shoot dry weight, root dry weight and seedling dry weight), whereas PC2 was dominated by early growth parameters (shoot length, root length, seedling length, time required for 50% germination, MGT) of foxtail millet. These findings, clearly indicated that germination, seedling vigor and seedling growth traits were representing distinct physiological process where each parameter contributes differently to crop establishment [25,27]. The clustering of KNO3, NaCl, PEG and NaOCl treatment confirms their role in accelerating emergence, while mannitol and CaCl2 related with biomass related traits.
4.5. Translation of early vigor into field performance during winter and summer season
The field evaluation of four foxtail millet varieties during winter season revealed that varietal differences in early vigor translated into significant variation in plant growth as well as yield components. BARI Kaon-2 demonstrated superior ear length, filled grain, 1000-grain weight, straw weight, biological yield, which reflects strong vegetative growth as well as assimilate production in both seasons. Furthermore, BARI Kaon-3 achieved the maximum grain in winter season, yield due to maximum filled grain ear-1 and harvest index, which indicates superior assimilate partitioning toward reproductive sinks. Higher ear length with superior filled grain is responsible for maximum grain yield of a variety [26,28]. Moreover, these decoupling of vegetative biomass and grain yield production underscores the magnitude of sink efficiency rather than absolute biomass production [29].
Furthermore, varietal performance differed between seasons, with BARI Kaon-1 performing superior in summer season may be due to maximum adaptation to higher moisture and temperature regimes. So, environment as well as variety itself plays a crucial role for better yield performance, that’s why variety should recommended based on growing seasons.
4.6. Yield robustness of seed priming response under winter and summer season
Enhanced early vigor likely outputted in improved canopy development, higher photosynthetic efficiency and largest nutrient uptake which ultimately increased yield [21,23]. NaCl priming outperformed significantly with panicle length, filled grain number, thousand grain weight, grain yield and harvest index in winter season and ear weight and thousand grain weight during summer season. This suggested the induction of adaptive physiological responses, such as osmotic regulation and enhanced enzyme activity [20,21]. Improvement of yield following salt priming like NaCl have been found effective in wheat, rice, maize and millets [15,30,17,23]. Furthermore, no priming and hydropriming produced inferior yields compared with salt priming, which suggesting that chemical priming (salt) is more effective than simple hydro-priming for maximizing crop productivity.
5. Conclusion
The present study confirms that seed priming is an effective approach to enhance germination, seedling vigor, and yield performance of foxtail millet under the agro-climatic conditions of Bangladesh. Among the evaluated treatments, NaCl priming at 10000 ppm consistently improved germination dynamics, early seedling growth, and yield attributes, resulting in superior grain yield in both winter and summer seasons. Varietal responses differed across seasons, with BARI Kaon-2 performing best during the winter season and BARI Kaon-1 exhibiting better adaptation and yield during the summer season, highlighting the importance of genotype × environment × management interactions. The strong association between early seedling vigor and final yield underscores the role of improved crop establishment in achieving yield stability. In contrast, non-primed and hydro-primed seeds consistently exhibited inferior performance, underscoring the advantage of chemical priming over simple hydration. NaCl seed priming at 10000 ppm emerges as a farmer-friendly, and season-resilient technology for enhancing seed quality, crop establishment, and yield of foxtail millet. Adoption of this technique, combined with season-specific varietal selection, can contribute to improved productivity and sustainability of millet-based cropping systems in Bangladesh and similar agro-ecological regions. This study is limited by its restriction to a single location and growing season, potentially constraining the extrapolation of findings across heterogenous agro-ecological environments. Additionally, the evaluation of a limited range of priming agents and concentrations underscores the necessity for multi-environment, multi-season investigations incorporating broader treatment diversity to robustly validate and generalize the outcomes. Furthermore, the future research should focus on elucidating the molecular and physiological mechanisms underlying NaCl-induced priming responses, particularly stress memory and osmotic regulation pathways. Integrating seed priming with nutrient management, biopriming agents, and climate-smart agronomic practices may further enhance the productivity and resilience of foxtail millet in low-input and marginal environments.
Acknowledgments
The authors thankfully acknowledge the Regional Agricultural Research Station, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), Jamalpur for providing the foxtail millet seed.
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