4.1.1 Natural environment.

From the perspective of natural landscapes, before the development of tourism, rural scenery was primarily characterised by agricultural and natural elements. Specific representations included ‘farmland’, ‘rape flowers’, ‘fields and gardens’, ‘bamboo’, and ‘vegetable gardens’. As VDS-3 recalled, ‘In 2005, when you came, you would find that the biggest feature was that it was all fields; from one side to the other, there were nothing but fields’. VDS-10 similarly emphasised, ‘This piece of land, before tourism development, was entirely fields. There were several vegetable plots in this area. Every household grew rice, vegetables, rapeseed, and other small crops’. Following the development of tourism, representations of rurality shifted from functional agricultural landscapes toward more ornamental features, such as ‘peach blossom forests’ and ‘maple forests’. Tourism weakened the emphasis on agricultural production while enhancing the visibility of decorative natural elements. The diversity of elements characterising rurality expanded. For example, VDS-17 noted, ‘There are canola flowers in the spring, maple leaves in the autumn, and around October 1, visitors can come and enjoy river crabs’.

Animals were also a strong component of rural representation, including ‘fowl’, ‘hare’, ‘pheasant’, ‘eagle’, and ‘woodpecker’. VSA-20 described Shiao Village, saying, ‘In the past, there were rice fields and natural landscapes, and many hares and pheasants. After development, they disappeared and cannot be seen. Previously, the mountains were wild and hard to reach; now, with tourism, human traces are everywhere’. This illustrates a shift from agriculture-centred representations toward human-centred ones as tourism developed.

Water sources, which previously served practical functions such as ‘washing rice’, ‘washing vegetables’, ‘washing clothes’, and ‘irrigation’, have evolved toward ornamental and recreational purposes. In Shi’ao Village, ponds transitioned from functional uses to decorative features, whereas Dashan Village maintained both living and ornamental functions. VSA-19 explained, ‘The pond water quality is good. We did not have running water when we were young, so we drank from ponds. The pond bottom was clear. Rice and vegetables were washed in the pond; now everyone uses tap water’.

Rural environments have also improved significantly. Residents’ descriptions shifted from ‘dirty’ and ‘backward’ to expressions such as ‘beautiful surroundings’, ‘cleanliness’, and ‘nice appearance’. JSA-14 recalled, ‘When thinking of the countryside, the first thing that comes to mind is the dirt road, which is inconvenient. Every family raised stinky, dirty pigs or chickens. Now the environment is much better’. JSA-9 added, ‘It’s a little better than before; it’s cleaner, the roads are tidy, and people are cleaning’.

Overall, residents’ representations indicate a transformation from a focus on productive – landscapes – featuring functional farmland, wildlife, and utilitarian environments – to consumptive landscapes deliberately designed for aesthetic and recreational appeal. Ornamental features such as peach blossoms and maple forests exemplify this shift. This evolution reflects the social construction and ongoing negotiation of rurality, as theorised in social representation theory, and highlights a fundamental revaluation of nature – from a source of subsistence to a visual and recreational commodity shaped by tourist expectations.

Tourists’ representations of rurality emphasise idyllic features, including fields, animals, vegetable plots, small ponds, flowers, grasses, serene environments, and fresh air. TDS-2 described a scene in a traditional village: ‘A peasant leads a cow across a small bridge, with some grass houses nearby. I think this picture represents an ideal village, which is now impossible to see’. Comparative analysis reveals that residents perceive rurality through concrete, reality-based attributes, whereas tourists tend to idealise rural areas as aesthetically pleasing and socially constructed landscapes.

4.1.2 Rural architecture.

The settlement landscape of rural tourism has undergone substantial transformation, reflected in the expansion of village areas, road construction and repair, improvements in architectural style, and the development of public recreational spaces. Tourism development has, to some extent, compressed natural rural spaces. Efforts to support tourism included repairing and planning the village settlement pattern, removing dilapidated structures such as farm walls, pigsties, toilets, and earthen constructions, and carrying out overall landscape maintenance. Consequently, rural settlement landscapes evolved from being ‘dilapidated’ and ‘disorderly’ to ‘clean’ and ‘orderly’. VSA-12 noted, ‘There are very big changes in the village. The current landscape is fully built and remodeled. It wasn’t like this before – there was no such good scenery, no convenient traffic, and the houses were not so beautiful. Everything has been renovated’.

Architectural styles in rural areas have also changed significantly. Most rural houses in Nanjing were traditionally constructed with blue bricks and gray tiles, reflecting simplicity and elegance. Over time, building quality improved. The building conditions in rural areas are also gradually improving. The architectural style of rural areas evolved from the original ‘simple’ and ‘shabby’ to the present ‘storied building’ and ‘comfortable’ features. The dwellings were typical Double-storey bungalows. After tourism development, the Hui-style horse-head wall was added and the entire façade of the village was painted white to create a typical rural architectural style. The style of rural architecture evolved from originally ‘dilapidated’ and ‘ordinary’ to ‘horse-head wall’, ‘Hui-style’, and ‘comfortable’. VSA-17 was asked if he liked the construction of Hui style architecture in the countryside. He said, ‘It looks pretty good. It’s definitely better than before’.

The representation of rural roads evolved from the original ‘muddy roads’ and ‘small roads’ to ‘concrete’, ‘asphalt’, ‘spacious’, and other rural infrastructure with modern characteristics. The overall representation of the village changed from the original special typical traditional village to a modern village. VSA-2 proposed changes in rural infrastructure that ‘everything is very clean and greenery is good, while the previous rural areas were made of mud and no cement’.

In addition to the enhancement of the rurality in the architectural style, the leisure and infrastructure spaces expanded. Visitor centers, RV camps, pavilions, leisure corridors, and parking lots were constructed to accommodate tourists. Dashan Village, for example, established a slow city visitor center and RV holiday camp, while Qiqiao Village built a tourist reception center. VSA-15 observed, ‘Tourists come to the recreation square to rest and sit under the pavilion’.

Residents’ descriptions of rural architecture indicate that Huizhou-style vernacular features – such as horsehead gables, traditional design elements, cleanliness, and comfort – now characterise rural dwellings. The perceived rurality of architecture and infrastructure has shifted markedly, from ‘untidy’, ‘dilapidated’, ‘messy’, and ‘ordinary’ to ‘neat’ and ‘spacious’. In these villages, built-up areas have expanded, with clear improvements in infrastructure, sanitation, housing quality, and architectural style. Tourism development has significantly enhanced the overall built landscape, elevating perceived rurality at the microscale, particularly from the perspective of tourists. This transformation demonstrates tourism’s active role in reshaping rurality through architectural and settlement forms.

Tourists, in particular, expect rural buildings to exhibit distinctive local features with traditional vernacular styles. TDS-3 described a village in Jing County, Anhui Province: ‘There are some well-preserved Hui-style buildings, all about 700 years old, with a small bridge and flowing water. The traditional village felt very authentic. Some places lacked certain features, but each had its own characteristics’. These observations illustrate that tourists and residents often have divergent expectations: residents value functional and aesthetic improvements, while tourists prioritise historically distinctive and visually appealing built environments that satisfy their desire for novelty, cultural engagement, and aesthetic pleasure.

4.2.1 Production and living.

In terms of modes of production, rural representation shows a clear shift from ‘agriculture’ to ‘agritainment’ and ‘tourism’, reflecting a transition from a primarily productive agricultural economy to a consumptive service sector. Shiao Village, for example, was historically focused on rice cultivation. At the turn of the century, some villagers had migrated for work. With the development of rural tourism, villagers returned to open farm-based restaurants and guesthouses, often collaborating with external investors. VSA-1 noted, ‘Shiao Village is represented by homemade cooking’.

Agricultural production methods have also evolved, moving from labor- and animal-based practices to mechanisation. Traditional tools and draft animals have been replaced with machinery, improving efficiency. VSA-20 recalled, ‘In the past, every household had cattle, sometimes shared among several families’.

Quality of life in rural areas has improved substantially. Villagers historically associated agricultural life with ’hardship’ and ’poverty’, whereas tourism development has introduced ‘happiness’ and ‘comfort’. JAS-2 reflected on this change: ‘Of course life is better now. Farming life in the past was exhausting and income was low. Now I can earn two or three thousand yuan per month, and I am happy’.

The pace of life has also shifted. Traditionally, villagers experienced periods of intense agricultural labor, but with rural tourism, life oscillates between ‘busier’ periods when guests are present and ‘leisurely’ times otherwise. VSA-19 described, ‘Before tourism development, we were busy with farming during the season and worked outside at other times. Now we run an agritainment business. When guests are here, we cook and serve; when there are no guests, we rest’.

Transportation in rural tourism destinations has improved, moving from scooters, tractors, and bicycles to buses and private cars, reflecting a modernisation of rural infrastructure. Similarly, rural markets have expanded from small local markets to larger commercial hubs, benefiting from improved transportation and increased visitor demand.

Dietary practices have diversified as well. Traditional subsistence diets have given way to richer, more nutritious offerings. The ‘homemade cook’ has become a prominent feature of rural tourism, with local dishes such as hen soup and river crab serving as important cultural representations.

Language practices have also been influenced by tourism. Dashan and Qiqiao Villages have unique regional dialects, with Dashan falling within the Wu language area. Tourism has increased residents’ use of Mandarin, impacting local language habits. VDS-01 observed, ‘Before tourism developed, everyone spoke dialects. Now they all speak a little Mandarin’.

Overall, the mode of production has undergone a profound transformation, shifting from traditional agriculture to diversified industries like farm stays and rural tourism. This has enhanced the quality of rural life, moving from hardship and poverty to happiness and contentment. Daily life, including aspects such as poultry farming, diet, shopping, and transportation, has modernised, and Mandarin proficiency has increased, reflecting broader social and technological modernisation. Compared with traditional rural life reveals a certain degree of attenuation of rurality, with rural life becoming more modernized. The development of social productive forces has had a profound impact on the traditional rural lifestyle [50]. Consequently, the manifestation of rurality in daily life exhibits a strong characteristic of progressiveness, aligning with contemporary trends.

Tourists’ perceptions of rural production and landscapes often emphasise idealised imagery. Typical representations include ‘smoke rising from kitchen chimneys’, ‘enjoying the cool’, ‘playing chess or cards’, and ‘wood-burning stoves’. TDS-2 remarked, ‘I need to use this wood stove to cook, and when I visit a rural village, I must first catch a chicken’. TDS-4 described a village scene: ‘Smoky air, children playing, summer evening atmosphere, and the sense of enjoying the cool after dinner’. Additionally, TDS-2 noted that early-morning pond scenes, with residents washing clothes using wooden implements, are still preserved in Dashan Village. These descriptions show that tourists often idealise traditional rural life, while residents seek convenience and modernisation. This contrast illustrates that tourists’ representations of rurality are shaped by idealised, socially constructed expectations of the rural experience.

4.2.2 Interpersonal communication.

Neighbourly relations in rural areas have undergone a marked transformation, shifting from the traditional ‘acquaintance society’ characterised by ‘harmony’ and ‘friendship’ to a present state often described as ‘unfamiliarity’, ‘less communication‘, and ‘competition’. Urbanisation has prompted many villagers to migrate or adopt urban lifestyles. Concurrently, tourism development has attracted external investors, disrupting local social networks and prompting new interactions among residents. As the tourism industry became a primary source of income, communication among villagers declined, and competitive dynamics emerged. VDS-11 observed, ‘Some people feel psychologically unbalanced when they see others’ business doing well. People’s hearts are not as pure as they used to be. There may be some competition with each other’.

The overall quality of life of residents has improved significantly. Social representations of villagers have evolved from being relatively low in education and civic awareness to higher-quality, more informed standards. JDS-11 noted, ‘At that time, there were many illiterates and weak legal awareness. Now that my educational level has improved, I am more concerned about current affairs and other issues’. In terms of interpersonal communication, rurality representation has generally weakened, particularly in areas with high levels of urbanisation and tourism development. Resident relocation and the influx of external businesses have altered the original social atmosphere, while market-oriented values have reshaped perceptions and social norms.

Overall, the social fabric has shifted from traditional values such as ‘loyalty’, ‘mutual assistance’, ‘simplicity’, ‘cooperation’, and ‘low cultural attainment’ toward ‘competition’ and ‘higher cultural quality’. This erosion of the traditional ‘acquaintance society’ reflects a fundamental social restructuring, marking a transition from peasant-economy-based interpersonal relationships to market-driven, interest-oriented relations. The solidarity once rooted in shared agricultural livelihoods and kinship ties has been supplanted by impersonal, contract-based interactions characteristic of a market economy. Tourism has acted as a catalyst for this transformation, with emerging competition among villagers representing a tangible manifestation of this new economic rationality, illustrating the social costs embedded within tourism’s economic benefits.

From the perspective of tourists, the simple and genuine social interactions of rural residents remain a key aspect of rurality and an important distinction from urban life. Villagers, as the primary agents shaping rurality, provide an interpersonal experience that is central to the appeal of rural tourism. While tourists often recognise this, local residents – motivated by immediate economic gains – may not fully appreciate their role in constructing this representation. Tourism development has occasionally disrupted these interactions, yet elements of traditional social cohesion persist. YDS-2 commented, ‘In fact, after the development of tourism here, it is a bit materialised and commercialised, but the customs and morals of the people are still very pure. This place was not as commercialised as other places after tourism development. I think the people here are nice’.

4.3.1 Folk-custom and festival.

Cultural representation reflects the subjective and spiritual dimensions of rural life, encompassing festival activities – such as folk customs, traditional celebrations, leisure, and entertainment – and spiritual orientations, including clan culture, historical relics, residents’ values, and sense of identity. Table 4 presents the coding process for cultural rurality representations [51]. VDS-5, a resident of Dashan Village, stated, ‘The Tiandi Stage has always existed, but it may have been improved after tourism development. The Tiandi Stage has a history of 3,800 years. Every year, on the 17th, 18th, and 19th of March in the lunar calendar, some local Huangmei opera or Yue opera troupes from Anhui are invited to perform for three to four days’.

The festival representation in these villages largely aligns with general rural areas, including traditional festivals such as the Spring Festival and Dragon Boat Festival, which have been adapted into events like the Crab Festival and Golden Flower Festival, reflecting tourism influences. Traditional customs such as making zongzi, writing and pasting couplets, dragon and lantern dances, performing operas, Long Street Banquets, Pitchfork Martial Arts Demonstrations, square dancing, casual walks, and playing Guandan have been revitalised. Tourism has facilitated the reproduction of these local festivals, making them significant attractions and drivers of rural tourism. VDS-7 remarked, ‘For example, we performed the ‘Five Fierce Deities’ (Wuchang Dance), a traditional folk dance to drive away evil spirits and pray for peace. We had neglected it for a while, but now, with tourism development, it has regained importance as a key cultural representation’.

In terms of leisure and entertainment, traditional villages offered few activities, whereas modern rural tourism destinations now provide a rich and varied array of recreational options, including public square dancing and the card game ‘Guandan’. Folk costumes and festival activities in rural destinations have undergone notable transformations, reflecting the revival of vibrant rural folk culture. Examples include the Long Street Banquet – a communal feast symbolising unity and prosperity – the Five Fierce Deities Dance, rooted in folk beliefs for warding off evil, and the Pitchfork Martial Arts Demonstration, a heritage performance. Tourism has enhanced the display of these activities, contributing to the cultural renaissance of rural areas.

Tourists also show interest in rural customs, though their perceptions tend to emphasise typical and widely recognised elements such as ‘lively’ atmospheres, dragon lantern performances, and lion dances. TDS-4 noted, ‘There are still dragon and lion dances in every rural area of China. When festivals arrive, these continue. You can witness them when you visit. They are lively, though somewhat less so than in the past’. Tourists’ representations generally reflect national or mainstream cultural practices, whereas residents highlight region-specific activities. This distinction underscores the inherent regional variability in the concept of rurality.

4.3.2 Residents’ spiritual orientation.

The concept of clans in villages has gradually weakened in recent years. Shiao Village, a natural village inhabited primarily by the Tang clan, retains a general awareness of clan origins, but lacks an ancestral hall and hosts few traditional clan sacrificial activities, leading to a dilution of clan culture. Dashan Village, inhabited by the Rui clan, maintains a Rui clan ancestral hall with preserved ancestral tablets, while Qiqiao Village, home to descendants of Confucius, has a newly constructed Kong family ancestral hall. Historically, family structures, genealogies, and ancestral instructions shaped rural life, but modernisation has led to the erosion of traditional clan culture. VDS-2 noted, ‘No one paid attention to it when we were young, but now residents have begun to have awareness of repairing genealogy, and it is necessary to protect culture’.

Historical relics represent another dimension of rural spiritual culture. Shiao Village, situated at the foot of Niushou Mountain, preserves the site of Yue Fei’s anti-Jin battle, including trenches and ruins from the historic Niutoushan victory. Tourism development has amplified rural spiritual culture, reinforcing local heritage through initiatives such as constructing the ‘Sanbao Road’ and naming the reservoir near Zheng He’s tomb as ‘Zheng He Lake’. In Dashan Village, the Ming-era Wenfeng Pagoda, destroyed during the Anti-Japanese War, was restored as part of tourism-led heritage conservation efforts.

Traditional rural values – harmony, filial piety, frugality, hard work, kindness, and integrity – have been partially eroded by modern economic imperatives, shifting toward more ‘open’ and market-oriented perspectives. Nonetheless, virtues such as simplicity, diligence, thrift, and filial piety remain prevalent, and villagers’ quality and cultural literacy have improved. Rural economic transitions, from smallholder subsistence to market-oriented activity, have fostered more rational economic behaviours while maintaining cooperative social norms. JSA-21 commented, ‘Every family comes here to help if there is something in the family. This kind of thing has continued. As before, people can do this automatically without saying anything’.

Tourism has also strengthened residents’ sense of identity and attachment to their villages. Previously, rural areas were under-recognized due to poverty, but tourism has enhanced both material benefits and cultural self-confidence. Representations include ‘like the rural’, ‘accustomed to the rural’, and ‘identified with the rural’. VDS-8 stated, ‘The development of tourism should have an impact on the identity and cultural self-confidence of farmers, and make them more self-confident’.

For residents, key spiritual and cultural aspects of rurality include clan culture, the Yue Fei Anti-Gold Fortress, Wenfeng Pagoda, rational economic orientation, and cultural confidence. Tourism has facilitated the excavation, dissemination, and promotion of these elements, enabling residents to perceive and value the cultural and spiritual heritage of their villages more vividly. For tourists, the spiritual dimension of rurality is experienced differently, focusing on a ‘quiet atmosphere’, ‘simple folk customs’, and ‘spiritual abundance’. In Dashan, as part of the slow international city initiative, the slow pace of life is a core representation of rurality. YDS-2 remarked, ‘When you go to this place, you basically do not need to think too much about it. You can integrate yourself into such an environment; you will be very relaxed, very comfortable, and very at ease, especially in a quiet life’. Tourists often yearn for these aspects of rural living, which are perceived as positive contrasts to the fast-paced urban environment, making spiritual and cultural elements central to rural tourism appeal.