5.3.1 Prominent terms in Period I (1949–1978).

1. (1) “译名”

Table 3 lists the top 10 words co-occurring with the term “译名” (term translation/ translated terms) from 1949 to 1978. The most notable aspect of “译名” is its standardization (统一), with the highest co-occurrence frequency of 42. Other interesting co-occurrences include “问题” (problem/issue), “词” (word), “民族” (nation), “错误” (mistake), and “读者” (reader), which may be used when discussing inconsistencies in translated terms.

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Table 3. Top 10 words co-occurring with “译名” in Period I.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343447.t003

The issue of standardizing translated terms was raised in the 1950s and remained to be a main focus thereafter. For example, Li’s [17] article entitled “On standardizing translated terms” was one of the first articles which discussed in great detail the issue of term translation. Li pointed out that standardizing translated terms was a technical and complicated issue. After listing many inconsistencies of proper name translation in books, newspapers, and magazines, Li expressed his hope that, on the one hand, the press (such as Xinhua News Agency and Xinhua Bookstore) should use standardized translated terms in its publications, and, on the other hand, the relevant authoritative government department should play a role in this area.

Similar problems also existed in the translation of film titles:

Example 1

我们最近收到报社转来的读者意见，对某些翻译片译名提出批评。经研究后，我们认为这些意见基本上是正确的，有作公开答复的必要。

国营厂翻译片的工作开始于一九四九年，在此以前，苏联影片已在各地上映，每片有一种以上的译名。我们开始翻译影片后，即统一审订译名。

我们统一审订译名的工作作得很不好。据初步检查，三年来经我们审订的翻译片译名中，有不少种是不妥的。…… [18]

We have recently received reader comments forwarded by the People’s Daily press criticizing the translation of certain film titles. After investigation, we acknowledge that these opinions are basically correct and that it is necessary to make a public reply.

The state-run film studios began translating foreign films in 1949. Prior to that, Soviet films had already been screened in many places, with each film having more than one translated title. When we started translating films, we also began to standardize, review and revise the translation of film titles.

We did a poor job in this aspect. According to preliminary inspections, many of the translations that have been reviewed and revised by us in the past three years are inappropriate....

This is a public reply from the Arts Committee of the Central Film Administration in 1952. It accepted the criticism from readers, reflected on the existence of inconsistently translated titles for films, and admitted that many revised translations of film titles are inappropriate.

Furthermore, in 1955, Bi and Xu [19] co-authored the article entitled “On standardization of Chinese in translation work”, relating standardization of translated terms with standardization of the Chinese language. After pointing out the major role played by translation in standardizing and enriching the Chinese language, Bi and Xu [19] analyzed the potential impact of inconsistent translated terms from two aspects. First, inconsistencies in term translation might directly influence readers’ understanding of the translation. Second, such inconsistencies might cause ambiguity and redundancy in the Chinese language.

Later, two articles [20,21] were published in the 1960s, specifically discussing the word “民族” (nation) from the perspective of term translation. One of the articles analyzed the use of relevant terms in original Marxist classics, examined their translations in Chinese, and ended with the conclusion that standardizing the use of “民族” (nation) in Chinese translations was vital for readers in their study of Marxist classics:

Example 2

由此可见，为了使读者在学习马克思主义经典著作（尤其是斯大林的著作）的民族问题理论时不再发生误解，“民族”一词的译名统一问题是必须解决的。 [20]

It can thus be seen that, in order to prevent misunderstandings in the study of the theories on nationalities question in Marxist classics (especially Stalin’s works), the issue of standardizing the translation of the word “民族 (nation) must be resolved.

The other article [21] introduced a forum on the use of “民族” (nation) and “部族” (tribe) in translations. The attendants of the forum had an in-depth discussion concerning the use of “民族” (nation) and “部族” (tribe) in translated Marxist classics, and finally selected “民族” (nation) as a standardized translation, in the hope of standardizing translated terms and eliminating inconsistencies in translated Marxist classics.

Along this line, we can find that the discourse in Period I (1949–1978) pays special attention to the impact of inconsistent translated terms. Existing extensively in books, newspapers, magazines, films, and even translated Marxist classics, inconsistent translated terms can not only cause difficulties for readers to understand the translations [17,20], but also result in ambiguity and redundancy in the Chinese language [19].

1. (2) “译制”

Table 4 lists the top 10 words co-occurring with the term “译制” (film dubbing) in Period I. It is not surprising that high-frequency co-occurrences of “译制” are “影片” (film/movie), “电影” (film/movie), “故事片” (narrative film), and “配音” (dubbing). What interest us most are actually the words “苏联” (Soviet Union), “东北电影制片厂” (Northeastern Film Studio), “语言” (language), and “少数民族” (ethnic minorities).

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Table 4. Top 10 words co-occurring with “译制” in Period I.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343447.t004

After the founding of the PRC, a large number of Soviet films were translated for and introduced to the Chinese people. The following is an excerpt of a report from the Translation Department of the Northeast, Shanghai and Beijing Films of the Film Bureau of the Central Ministry of Culture:

Example 3

一九五○年，我们国营东北、上海、北京三制片厂除完成原计划翻译四十部苏联故事片，与三十六本苏联科学教育短片外，并为配合抗美援朝保家卫国运动，超额译制了《秘密使节》、《阴谋》与《钢铁是怎样炼成的》三部故事片，苏联科学教育短片也超额完成了六本。 [22]

In 1950, our state-run film studios in Northeast China, Shanghai, and Beijing finished the originally planned translation of 40 Soviet narrative films and 36 Soviet science-educational shorts. Additionally, in support of the Campaign of Resisting U.S. Aggression and Aiding Korea to Defend Our Homeland, we also translated three extra narrative films (“Secret Envoy”, “Conspiracy” and “How Steel Is Tempered”) as well as another six science-educational shorts from the Soviet Union.

This report summarized the work progress in film translation. It clearly pointed out that translating Soviet films was in line with the Movement of Resisting U.S. and Aiding North Korea. That is, translating Soviet films was of great significance to nation building. We can find more examples:

Example 4

东北电影制片厂五年来已翻译了九十六部苏联故事影片和四十部动画片、科学教育片，对中苏文化交流起了重要的作用。东北电影制片厂译制的反映苏联人民高尚品质和人类最美好的生活的苏联影片在中国放映后，受到我国广大观众的欢迎。 [23]

Over the past five years, the Northeast Film Studio has translated 96 Soviet narrative films as well as 40 animated and science-educational films, which have played an important role in cultural exchanges between China and the Soviet Union. The Soviet films translated by the Northeast Film Studio, which reflect the noble qualities of the Soviet people and the most beautiful aspects of human life, have been warmly received by audiences across China upon their screening.

Example 5

中国电影发行公司负责人今天对新华社记者说，中国今年将翻译苏联艺术片四十六部……除故事片外，中国还将译制苏联新闻纪录片、科学教育片等近一百部。 [24]

The head of the China Film Distribution Company told Xinhua News Agency reporters today that China will translate 46 Soviet art films this year... In addition to narrative films, China will also translate nearly 100 Soviet newsreels, science-educational films, and so on.

Based on Examples 4–5, we can see that translating Soviet films seemed like an important and serious task at that period. And the types of translated films, mainly narrative films and science-educational films, not only served nation building as mentioned before, but also promoted the cultural exchanges between China and the Soviet Union. Besides, the Northeast Film Studio made a great contribution to translating Soviet films.

Apart from this, much effort was exerted to translate Chinese films into other languages, especially the languages of ethnic minorities in China:

Example 6

新疆各族人民都迫切希望能够看到愈来愈多的用他们的语言译制的祖国影片。 [25]

The people of all ethnic groups in Xinjiang eagerly hope to watch more and more domestic films translated into their languages.

Example 7

故事片《李双双》已经译制成蒙古语片，不久将在内蒙古草原上放映。 [26]

The narrative film “Li Shuang-shuang” has been translated into Mongolian and will soon be screened in Inner Mongolia.

Example 8

我国电影《白毛女》和《党的女儿》最近在北京电影制片厂用马里邦巴拉语译制成功。 [27]

China’s films ‘The White-haired Girl’ and ‘Daughters of the Party’ have recently been successfully translated into the Bambara language at the Beijing Film Studio.

The excerpts above show that the work of translating films into ethnic minority languages started in the early 1950s and continued in the 1960s. Afterwards, it gained increasing attention in the 1970s:

Example 9

广西壮族自治区各级电影部门积极用当地少数民族语言，配音译制电影。目前已用壮语、侗语等配音译制了十五部影片。这些影片在各少数民族地区放映后，受到热烈欢迎。

……

广西壮族自治区电影部门在用少数民族语言配音译制影片的同时，还积极发展少数民族地区的电影放映事业，使各少数民族人民群众能比较及时地看到本民族语言配音译制的电影。 [28]

Film agencies at all levels in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region are actively dubbing films in local minority languages. So far, 15 films have been dubbed in Zhuang and Dong languages. These films have been warmly welcomed upon screening in minority areas.

......

Film agencies in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, while dubbing films into minority languages, are also actively developing film screening undertakings in minority areas, ensuring that the ethnic minority masses can watch the films dubbed into their native languages in time.

Based on the analysis above, we can find that film translation proved to be a significant undertaking in the period from 1949 to 1978. The primary task was translating Soviet films into China, and the secondary task was translating films into ethnic minority languages. Correspondingly, there existed two purposes in film translation: the first one was to promote socialist construction by translating films from the Soviet Union, and the second purpose was to strengthen national unity by translating films into the languages of ethnic minorities.

1. (3) “编译”

Table 5 lists the top 10 words co-occurring with the term “编译” (compilation and translation) in Period I. We can see that the most notable co-occurrence of “编译” is “出版” (publishing), with the highest co-occurrence frequency of 53. Other interesting co-occurrences include “科学” (science), “教科书” (textbook), “苏联” (Soviet Union), “教材” (textbook), and “藏文” (Tibetan language).

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Table 5. Top 10 words co-occurring with “编译” in Period I.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343447.t005

The reason why “出版” (publishing) and “科学” (science) co-occur frequently with “编译” is attributed to the establishment and activities of a special group, i.e., “中国科学院编译出版委员会” (Committee on Compilation, Translation, and Publication of the Chinese Academy of Sciences). This committee was established on May 19th, 1956, which was an important event in translation circles. Its principles and tasks included:

Example 10

决定科学出版工作的方针和任务；审查、批准科学出版工作的计划并且领导和监督计划的执行；组织近代学术论著丛刊的编纂工作以及组织编订各学科科学名词和解决科学著作编译出版工作中的其他重大问题。 [29]

Determining the principles and tasks for scientific publishing; reviewing and approving plans for scientific publishing, and directing and supervising their implementation; organizing the compilation and translation of modern academic anthology series, determining scientific terminology in all disciplines, and resolving other major issues in the compilation, translation, and publication of scientific works.

Adhering to the above principles, this committee played a key role in compiling, translating and publishing scientific works in the 1950s:

Example 11

大家在发言中提出，为了贯彻“百家争鸣”方针，今后编译出版工作，必须充分反映中国的和世界各国科学研究成果，以及学术上的争论。 [30]

In their speeches, the attendants proposed that, in order to implement the policy of ‘Contention of all schools of thought’, future work on compilation, translation, and publication must fully reflect the scientific research achievements and academic debates in China and other countries all over the world.

This excerpt above is about a plenary meeting held by the committee on September 5th, 1956, concerning how to serve scientific research through the compilation, translation, and publication of scientific works. The attendants stressed the importance of the scientific research results and academic debates at home and abroad.

Apart from scientific works, Soviet textbooks and plays were also in the scope of compilation, translation and publication during the 1950s:

Example 12

……旧教科书的观点、材料与方法比较陈旧，新编译的苏联中学教科书的观点、材料与方法都比较进步，和东北中学生的程度也相接近。 [31]

The views, materials and methods in the old textbooks are relatively outdated, while those of the newly compiled and translated Soviet secondary school textbooks are more progressive and are closer to the level of students in Northeastern secondary schools.

Example 13

中国戏剧出版社决定有计划地编译出版苏联著名作家剧作集丛刊，作为对十月革命节的献礼。 [32]

The China Theatre Publishing House has decided to systematically compile, translate, and publish a series of plays by famous Soviet writers as a tribute to the October Revolution.

Examples 12–13 above show that compiling, translating and publishing Soviet works was an effective and practical way to update the textbooks used by secondary students and promote bilateral relations between China and the Soviet Union.

Additionally, book compilation, translation, and publication in minority languages (such as Tibetan and Mongolian) has remained a focal point in the 1950s, and gained increased attention in the 1970s. Such work was improved gradually in terms of the development of translation institutions, staff recruitment, as well as the capability of compiling and translating in minority languages:

Example 14

委员会还为拉萨小学的学生编译了算术、藏文等课本十多种，为拉萨市人民医院、邮电局编译了“藏语业务会话”…… [33]

The Committee has also compiled and translated over 10 textbooks such as arithmetic and the Tibetan language for students in primary schools of Lhasa, as well as ‘Practical Conversations in Tibetan’ for the Lhasa People’s Hospital and Telecommunications Bureau...

Example 15

几年来，八省、自治区为落实党的民族政策，加强蒙古文图书编译出版工作，普遍建立、健全了编译机构，增加了编译人员，同时提高了蒙古文印刷能力。 [34]

Over the past few years, in order to implement the Party’s ethnic policies and improve the work on Mongolian book compilation, translation, and publishing, eight provinces and autonomous regions have generally established and improved their translation institutions, increased the number of translators, and improved the printing capabilities in Mongolian.

According to Examples 14–15, it seems that the work on compilation and translation mainly served three purposes in Period I (1949–1978). Firstly, it helped to promote educational development. Second, it contributed to international friendship with the Soviet Union. Third, it could strengthen unity between different ethnic groups. All the three purposes pointed to the socialist construction between 1949 and 1978, the early years of the People’s Republic of China.

5.3.2 Prominent term in Period II (1979–2000).

“重译” (retranslation) is the most prominent term in the period from 1979 to 2000. Table 6 lists the top 10 words co-occurring with the term “重译” (retranslation) in Period II. The most noticeable co-occurrence of “重译” is “名著” (classic), with the highest co-occurrence frequency of 45. It is natural that retranslation co-occur frequently with classics, since the reputation of original works is often one of the primary factors which determine the success of their translations. The other interesting high-frequency co-occurrence is “热” (fever), with a co-occurrence frequency of 16. The remaining words in Table 6 are low-frequency co-occurrences of the term “重译”.

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Table 6. Top 10 words co-occurring with “重译” in Period II.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343447.t006

The period from 1979 to 2000 witnessed the publication of many retranslations, such as those of Red Star Over China, Le Père Goriot, La Dame aux Camélias, Notre-Dame de Paris, Le Rouge et le Noir, Die Leiden des jungen Werthers, and Marxist classics, etc., covering a wide range of literature. This growing trend of retranslating famous works (especially world-famous literary classics) was gradually noticed and dispersedly debated in the public in the 1980s.

Wang [35] was a pioneer who elaborated upon the issue of retranslation. He considered the retranslation boom as a prominent cultural phenomenon which reflected the cultural needs of Chinese readers in that special period. He goes on by relating the retranslation boom to relevant publishing departments:

Example 16

但是，近年来，面对读者对世界文学名著需求的上升之势，不少出版部门一方面受出版利益的吸引，另一方面出于版权问题的考虑，便开始在名著重译上做文章，重译本由此大量出现。 [35]

However, in recent years, faced with the rising demand for world-famous literary classics, many publishing departments, attracted by the interests on the one hand and out of copyright considerations on the other hand, have started to take advantage of retranslating classics, leading to the emergence of a large number of retranslations.

Wang partially attributed the emergence of numerous retranslations to certain publishing departments which were attracted and driven by the interests. Then, he made an in-depth analysis of the problems in retranslation and pointed out three main problems with retranslation: (a) the publishers’ seeking of profits, (b) the hasty organization of translator teams and the lack of academic ability, and (c) repeated publications. These factors turned retranslation into an abnormal phenomenon in Chinese culture. Publishers, according to Wang, are primarily responsible for the retranslation boom. By providing some suggestions at the end of the article, Wang [35] called on the government to enhance the management of the publishing mechanism.

Wang’s article [35] was the most representative one that systematically and retrospectively reflected on the growing trend of retranslating classics (especially world-famous literary works) and on the irresponsible publication of retranslations. It served as a warning against low-quality retranslations in the period from 1979 to 2000.

5.3.3 Prominent terms in Period III (2001–2023).

1. (1) “互译”

Table 7 lists the top 10 words co-occurring with the term “互译” (reciprocal translation) in Period III. The most noticeable co-occurrence of “互译” is “出版” (publishing), with the highest co-occurrence frequency of 85. Other interesting co-occurrences are “经典” (classics), “签署” (sign), “备忘录” (memorandum), “两国” (two countries), “亚洲” (Asia), “中国” (China), and “国家” (nation).

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Table 7. Top 10 words co-occurring with “互译” in Period III.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343447.t007

Relating the term “互译” with the high-frequency co-occurrences in Table 7, we may come to a preliminary conclusion that those words jointly help to create such a context where a series of memoranda of cooperation on reciprocal translation and publication were signed between China and other countries (especially Asian countries). There is an early example in the discourse:

Example 17

2013年5月，中国国家新闻出版广电总局与俄罗斯出版与大众传媒署在莫斯科联合签署了《“中俄经典与现当代文学作品互译出版项目”合作备忘录》。双方商定，6年内相互翻译并出版对方国家不少于50种经典作品，或双方共出版不少于100种图书。 [36]

In May 2013, China’s State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television and Russia’s Federal Agency for Press and Mass Media jointly signed the ‘Memorandum of Cooperation on the Reciprocal Translation and Publication of Chinese-Russian Classic and Contemporary Literary Works’ in Moscow. The two sides agreed to translate and publish no less than 50 classic works from each other’s country, or co-publish no less than 100 books within 6 years.

This China-Russia memorandum of cooperation in 2013 represented the beginning of reciprocal translation and publication between China and other countries. Further, in 2019, the Asian Classics Translation Program was initiated, in accordance with the important proposal put forward by General Secretary Xi Jinping at the Conference on Dialogue of Asian Civilizations:

Example 18

亚洲经典著作互译计划为各国间的交流互鉴提供了一个平台。截至目前，我国已与18个亚洲国家签署图书互译出版合作协议，互译出版了70多种精品图书。 [37]

The Asian Classics Translation Program has provided a platform for exchanges and mutual learning among Asian countries. To date, China has signed cooperation agreements on reciprocal translation and publication with 18 Asian countries, and over 70 quality books have been mutually translated and published.

The Asian Classics Translation Program aimed to promote mutual cultural translation and civilizational exchanges among the 47 Asian countries. Following the initiation of this program, a large number of memoranda of cooperation were signed between China and Asian countries. To date, China has signed memoranda of cooperation on the reciprocal translation and publication of classical works with Singapore, Pakistan, South Korea, Iran, Laos, Armenia, Kyrgyzstan, Azerbaijan, Mongolia, Yemen, Thailand, Jordan, Nepal, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Vietnam, North Korea, and Qatar:

Example 19

2021年1月5日，中巴双方宣布签署《中华人民共和国国家新闻出版署与巴基斯坦伊斯兰共和国国家遗产和文化署关于经典著作互译出版的备忘录》…… [38]

On January 5, 2021, China and Pakistan announced the signing of the ‘Memorandum Between the National Press and Publication Administration of the People’s Republic of China and the National Heritage and Culture Division of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan on the Reciprocal Translation and Publication of Classical Works’….

Example 20

2021年1月18日，中韩双方以交换文本的方式签署了《中华人民共和国国家新闻出版署与大韩民国文化体育观光部关于经典著作互译出版的备忘录》…… [39]

On January 18, 2021, China and South Korea signed the ‘Memorandum Between the National Press and Publication Administration of the People’s Republic of China and the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism of the Republic of Korea on the Reciprocal Translation and Publication of Classical Works’ through an exchange of documents.…

This series of memoranda on reciprocal translation and publication of classics show that China is paying increasing attention to the role played by translation in bridging an inter-cultural dialogue between China and other Asian countries on the one hand, and in enhancing China’s relationship with surrounding countries on the other hand.

1. (2) “译介”

Table 8 lists the top 10 words co-occurring with the term “译介” (to introduce sth. via translation/translating) in Period III. The most noticeable co-occurrences of “译介” are “文学” (literature) (with the highest co-occurrence frequency of 65), “文化” (culture) (with a co-occurrence frequency of 54), and “中国” (China) (with a co-occurrence frequency of 53). Other interesting co-occurrences are “中华” (China/Chinese), “当代” (contemporary), “传播” (spread), “工程” (project), and “世界” (world).

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Table 8. Top 10 words co-occurring with “译介” in Period III.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343447.t008

The frequent co-occurrences of “文学” and “译介” can be mainly attributed to the fact that, entering the 21^st century, a growing number of people have noticed unbalanced literary exchanges between China and other countries:

Example 21

据中国作家协会副主席金炳华介绍，当前中外文学作品译介存在 “信息单行道” 格局。大量外国文学作品能很快地被译介到国内来，而中国文学译介出去的就少得多。 [40]

According to Jin Binghua, Vice President of China Writers Association, there is currently a ‘one-way street’ pattern in the translation and introduction of literary works between China and other countries. A large number of foreign literary works can be quickly translated and introduced to China, but far fewer Chinese literary works are translated and introduced abroad.

Such a “one-way street” pattern in literary exchanges implied that it was easier for the Chinese audience to get access to translated foreign literature, but foreign readers might have little or no access to translated Chinese literature. Even though some Chinese literature has been translated into foreign countries, there are still some problems:

Example 22

过去虽也有一些书籍被译成外文出版，但零零散散，不成系统。国外也有对中华文化著作的译介，但品种屈指可数，有的纯属猎奇，错误很多；有的为了达到某种政治目的，故意篡改、歪曲，影响十分恶劣。 [41]

In the past, although some books have been translated into foreign languages and published, they were sporadic and lacked systematicity. While there have been translations and introductions of Chinese cultural works abroad, the number is exceedingly limited. Some of these works are purely driven by curiosity and contain many errors; others have been deliberately altered or distorted for certain political purposes, resulting in highly detrimental effects.

According to Example 22, Chinese literature was not widely received in the system of world literature, and thus the position of Chinese literature on the world stage was unsatisfactory. For one thing, the number of translated Chinese literary works in foreign countries was limited; for another, the existing translations were disappointing in terms of their translation quality and literary influence, and sometimes even deviated considerably from the original Chinese works. In order to improve this situation, China launched a project entitled “中国当代文学百部精品译介工程” (100 Contemporary Chinese Literary Masterpieces Translation Project):

Example 23

中国作家协会将启动 “中国当代文学百部精品译介工程”，推动更多的当代文学作品走出国门。 [42]

China Writers Association is set to launch the ‘100 Contemporary Chinese Literary Masterpieces Translation Project’ to promote more contemporary literary works to go global.

Example 24

旨在推动中国文学走向世界、树立中华民族崭新形象的 “中国当代文学百部精品译介工程”，目前已确定首批译介作品，将分别介绍到俄罗斯、波兰、古巴等3个欧美国家。 [40]

The ‘100 Contemporary Chinese Literary Masterpieces Translation Project’, aimed at promoting Chinese literature globally and establishing a new image for the Chinese nation, has already selected the first batch of works for translation. These works will be introduced to European and American countries including Russia, Poland, and Cuba.

According to Examples 23–24, the “100 Contemporary Chinese Literary Masterpieces Translation Project” aimed to introduce Chinese literature to foreign countries and thus promote the Chinese literary position in the world, so as to improve the overseas promotion of contemporary Chinese literature.

In the 2010s, there also emerged an increasing demand for cultural translation. As pointed out by Jiang [43], there was, first and foremost, an asymmetry between China and other countries in the translation and dissemination of cultural information (not limited to literature). Additionally, cultural translation in the past was narrowed down to and even equated with the translation of voluminous literary classics, the outcomes of which were not encouraging due to a quite limited audience.

However, as advocated by Jiang [43] and Xu [44], the focuses of cultural translation could be quite varied:

Example 25

从传播内容来看，除了传统出版、影视机构的大部头作品之外，更多外国人对中国文化的兴趣往往来自碎片化的信息、文章乃至故事、评论、视频和图片，他们想“采购”的，往往不是“成套设备”，而是“零售商品”，这部分工作其实也不可小视。……凡此种种看似不完整、不系统、跨界、短平快、消费性极强的文化信息需求，恰恰很少得到中国对外文化译介扶持体系的关注和支持，其结果，就是导致中国文化的国际形象常常过于死板紧张，缺少灵活变通。 [43]

In terms of dissemination content, aside from voluminous works by traditional publishing and film agencies, foreign interest in Chinese culture often stems from fragmented information, articles, stories, reviews, videos, and images. What they want to ‘purchase’ is often not ‘complete sets of equipment’ but ‘retail goods.’ This part of the work should not be underestimated. Various forms of demand, on the seemingly incomplete, unsystematic, cross-border, short-term, and highly consumable cultural information, rarely gain the attention and support from China’s system of outward cultural translation and introduction. As a result, China’s international cultural image often appears too rigid and tense, lacking flexibility and adaptability.

Example 26

推动中华文化走出去，做好中华文化译介工作至关重要。这里强调的中华文化译介，不仅包括文学作品的译介，也包括中华文化典籍的译介，还包括能够展示当代中国鲜活思想的哲学社会科学研究成果的译介。 [44]

It is crucial to promote Chinese culture abroad and do a good job in translating Chinese culture. The Chinese culture, emphasized here, includes not only literary works but also Chinese cultural classics as well as philosophical and social science research outcomes that can showcase contemporary China’s vibrant thoughts.

Cultural translation covered the translation of various text types, ranging from full-length books (such as literary works and cultural classics) to fragmented information (such as reviews, images, and videos). This extension from literary translation to cultural translation is significant for introducing Chinese culture (not merely Chinese literature) to the world. In addition, He Mingxing, a scholar of international news and communication, put forward the practice of multilingual cultural translation:

Example 27

……将多语种对外译介的重要性上升到国家对外文化传播的战略高度，尽早考虑人才队伍的年轻化、国际化，推动多语种人才和文化传播的战略性规划。 [45]

… [we need to] elevate the importance of multilingual translation to the strategic height of national cultural dissemination, consider the early development of a young, international talent team, and promote the strategic plans concerning multilingual talents and cultural dissemination.

More often than not, cultural translation means to translate and introduce Chinese culture to English-speaking countries, due to the global influence of the English language. Considering growing cultural exchanges between China and other countries all over the world (non-English speaking countries included), multilingual cultural translation is a step forward, on the basis of cultural translation, to promote Chinese culture to the world at large.

The shift from literary translation to cultural translation (and even to multilingual cultural translation) in the period from 2001 to 2023 indicates that China has been continuously adapting to the needs of new situations and making adjustments accordingly. Thus, translation proves to occupy an important position in improving literary communication as well as cultural exchanges between China and other countries.

1. (3) “翻译家”

Table 9 lists the top 10 words co-occurring with the term “翻译家” (noted translator) in Period III. The most noticeable co-occurrences of “翻译家” are “文学” (literature), with the highest co-occurrence frequency of 83. Other interesting co-occurrences are “中国” (China), “作家” (writer), “文化” (culture), “青年” (youth), “出版家” (publisher), and “学者” (scholar).

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Table 9. Top 10 words co-occurring with “翻译家” in Period III.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343447.t009

The frequent co-occurrences of “翻译家” and “文学” were mainly used to recognize the contribution of noted translators in China’s literary translation:

Example 28

中国文学作为世界文学重要的组成部分，是一个客观的存在。然而，中国文学若不经过汉学家、翻译家的努力，那么它作为世界文学的构成部分就很难实现。 [46]

Chinese literature, as an important part of world literature, is an objective existence. However, without the efforts of sinologists and noted translators, it would be difficult to realize the role of Chinese literature as an integral part of world literature.

Example 29

2日，在柏林举行的第二十届世界翻译大会会员代表大会上，中国文学翻译家许渊冲荣获国际翻译界最高奖项之一——国际翻译家联盟（国际译联）2014 “北极光” 杰出文学翻译奖，成为该奖项1999年设立以来首位获此殊荣的亚洲翻译家。 [47]

On the 2nd [of August], at the 20th World Congress of the International Federation of Translators held in Berlin, noted Chinese literary translator Xu Yuanchong was awarded one of the highest honors in the international translation community – the 2014 International Federation of Translators (FIT) “Aurora Borealis” Prize for Outstanding Translation of Fiction Literature. He is the first Asian translator to receive this honor since the establishment of the award in 1999.

Noted translators played a vital role in establishing Chinese literature as a significant component of world literature. As China’s Nobel-winning novelist Mo Yan [46] noted, Chinese literature, though an objective existence, could only realize its full potential through the dedicated efforts of sinologists and noted translators. A prime example of such contributions is Xu Yuanchong, who was awarded the 2014 “Aurora Borealis” Prize for Outstanding Translation of Fiction Literature by the International Federation of Translators [47]. This recognition underscored the crucial role that noted translators played in bridging Chinese literature with the global literary community.

Given this special role of noted translators, there also emerged the discussion of the standards or requirements for a “good” literary translator. Mira Ahmed, an Egyptian sinologist and literary translator, pointed out that a “good” literary translator must accurately reflect the original author’s style and diction in translation, convey the cultural background and thinking characteristics of the original work, and have strong expressive abilities in both languages [48,49]. Those standards would ensure that readers cannot easily distinguish between the original text and the translation.

In order to better translate and introduce Chinese literature to the world, the relationship between noted translators and writers was also mentioned:

Example 30

翻译是技术问题，也是学术问题，更是情感问题。要把中国文学准确地、传神地翻译成外文，应该不断加深翻译家与中国作家之间的了解，也要加深翻译家同行间的了解。 [46]

Translation is a technical issue, an academic issue, and an emotional issue. To accurately translate Chinese literature into foreign languages, we should constantly deepen the mutual understanding between noted translators and Chinese writers, as well as the mutual understanding among noted translators.

According to Mo Yan [46], the mutual understanding between noted translators and Chinese writers should be deepened. The enhanced mutual understanding could allow noted translators to better grasp writers’ intentions and style, leading to more faithful and evocative translations. Additionally, it helped foster collaboration and trust, which could result in higher-quality translations that resonated more deeply with international audiences.

It is worth noting that, faced with the limited number of noted translators, the public also discussed the cultivation of young translators:

Example 31

目前，文学翻译主要依靠两支队伍，一支是老一代翻译家，另一支是中青年译者。令人遗憾的是，老一代翻译家队伍的人数正日渐减少，优秀的中青年译者也是供不应求。 [50]

Currently, literary translation mainly relies on two groups: one group is the older generation of noted translators, and the other group consists of young and middle-aged translators. Unfortunately, the number of the older generation of noted translators is gradually decreasing, and there is a shortage of outstanding young and middle-aged translators.

Example 32

目前从事中译外工作的中坚力量主要是老一辈翻译家，优秀中青年译者严重不足，翻译队伍“断层”令人担忧。 [51]

The current backbone of those engaged in outward translation work is mainly the older generation of translators, with a severe shortage of outstanding young and middle-aged translators. This ‘gap’ in the translation team is worrying.

The limited (and also decreasing) number of noted translators led the public to reflect on how to develop young translators for literary translation. According to the excerpts above, the field of literary translation relied heavily on noted translators. Unfortunately, the number of noted translators was dwindling, and there was a significant shortage of outstanding young and middle-aged translators, resulting in a gap in the translation team. Therefore, the cultivation of young translators was crucial to ensure the continuity and quality of Chinese literary translation.

The analysis above shows that the significant contributions made by noted translators in the field of Chinese literary translation have received continued attention in Period III (2001–2023). On this basis, discussions have emerged concerning the standards for good translators, the relationship between noted translators and writers, and the cultivation of young translators.

5.3.4 Constant terms across different periods.

The three terms “译本”, “译文”, and “译者”, which cover the product and agent of translation, can be taken as constant terms from 1949 to 2023, since there is a relatively steady increase in their cumulative proportions. In essence, these three terms are the basic terms in translation studies. And they are unavoidable when we describe and explain translation phenomena. Thus, not surprisingly, these terms prove to be the consistent focus across different periods.

Due to space limitations, the following is a generalization about the use of “译本”, “译文”, and “译者” from 1949 to 2023 based on co-occurrence results, paying special attention to differences among the periods.

Table 10 lists the top 10 words co-occurring with the three terms in different periods. The most frequent co-occurrence words are highlighted in grey.

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Table 10. Top 10 words co-occurring with “译本”, “译文”, and “译者” in three periods.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343447.t010

As indicated by Table 10, the three terms “译本”, “译文”, and “译者” are inextricably interwoven in the People’s Daily discourse on translation. For one thing, the three terms share many high-frequency co-occurrence words such as “出版” (publication), “文学” (literature), “读者” (reader), and “中国” (China). For another, the three terms even serve as co-occurrence words of each other in certain cases.

However, those constant terms are discussed from different perspectives in different periods. Specifically, with regard to “译本”, although the primary focus on translations remains to be publication (“出版”) over the three periods, Period I mainly concentrates on the translations of the works by political leaders such as “毛泽东” (Mao Zedong), “列宁” (Lenin), and “斯大林” (Stalin), whereas Periods II and III pay more attention to the translations of literary works (“文学”). Besides, more agents involved in translation activities, such as the translator (“译者”) and reader (“读者”), are highlighted in Periods II and III.

As to “译文”, the primary focus on translated texts shifts from the reader (“读者”) in Period I to original text (“原文”) in Periods II and III. Particularly, after 1979, the quality (“质量”) of translated texts (especially accuracy [“准确”]) attracts more attention. Additionally, the genres under discussion shift from literary works (“文学”) in Period I to Marxist works in Periods II and III. That means, the translation quality of Marxist works gains its importance after 1979 in the discourse. Furthermore, Period III also witnesses more discussions about revision (“修订”), the reader (“读者”) and the translator (“译者”) of translated texts.

With respect to “译者”, the primary focus on translators changes from publication (“出版”) in Periods I and II to literature (“文学”) in Period III. Moreover, in the close context of “译者”, the three co-occurrence words China (“中国”), reader (“读者”), and author (“作者”) prove to be particularly emphasized after 2001. Thus, it seems that, in recent years, the relationships between the translator, China, the reader, and the author have gained increasing interest in the public.

Based on those observations, it is safe to say that, even though translations and translators have been the constant focus, we can still discover some shifts over the years. First, after 1979, literary translation and translated literature has grown into an important focus in the discourse. Second, translation quality (more specifically, accuracy) has been particularly highlighted in the period between 1979 and 2023. Third, translators’ relationships with literary works, China, the reader, and the author are becoming increasingly close from Period I to Period III.