1. Introduction

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that children aged 5–17 years participate in an average of 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (PA) per day [1]. Complementing this, the United Kingdom (UK) government recommends that children should have access to (at least) 30 minutes of PA during school hours and (at least) 30 minutes outside of school [2]. Despite these clear guidelines, physical inactivity among children remains a persistent global health burden [3]. In England, only 44.6% of children aged 5–16 years meet the WHO’s 60-minute daily PA guidelines [4]. This problem is particularly acute among children from ethnic minority backgrounds [5], especially those from lower economic households [6].

Schools can play a crucial role in increasing PA levels in children and adolescents [7], potentially addressing barriers encountered at home while providing facilitators such as sports equipment-factors identified as particularly important for children from ethnic minority backgrounds [8]. Research demonstrates that children acquire higher PA levels in school environments compared to home during the holidays [9]. Moreover, school-based PA, including recess and activity breaks, correlates positively with educational outcomes and behaviour [10], as well as with enhanced mental, physical and cognitive development [11].

Addressing PA behaviour among children from ethnic minority backgrounds is critical for mitigating health inequalities, obesity and sedentary lifestyles as they go through adolescence and into adulthood [12]. According to Allender et al. [13], early exposure to PA is crucial for children’s development as well as long-term PA participation. Data from a cross-sectional study conducted on primary schools within Europe suggest that most children spend 65% of their time in school on sedentary activities, especially children from ethnic minority groups from low- and mid-income neighbourhoods [14]. Within the school setting, several structural barriers impede PA participation including insufficient leadership support and a crowded curriculum that prioritises academic achievement [15]. While a lack of variety of sports and organised team sports were identified by children from ethnic minority groups as barriers to PA participation [16], the recruitment of teachers who lack intercultural knowledge of ethnic minority groups, makes it more difficult to address structural inequalities inherent in PA participation among this population [17].

Challenges such as a lack of variety of sports can significantly impede the achievement of optimal PA levels in children from ethnic minority groups [18]. The school environment should serve as an enabling setting for all children to engage in moderate to vigorous PA, by providing opportunity, accessible spaces (spaces to play), social support and appropriate equipment [19]. Schoolteachers bear significant responsibility for stimulating PA through teaching, coaching and motivating the children [20]. They typically determine the type of activities (PA-focused) and how long the children spend engaged in them [21]. Given that children from ethnic minority backgrounds experience higher levels of physical inactivity and face more challenges at achieving PA at home [22], tailored approaches are needed to engage them effectively within the school setting. Previous studies including a children’s qualitative study [16] have already explored barriers and motivators to PA participation in children from ethnic minority groups in Newcastle upon Tyne, by collecting qualitative data directly from children about their perceived barriers and motivators. This present study extends this work by exploring teachers’ perspectives on the barriers and motivators to PA participation among children from ethnic minority groups living in Newcastle upon Tyne, in the North-East of England and to determine through their suggestions, how schools can be better supported to provide a PA enabling environment for children, especially, children from ethnic minority groups.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Participants

Participants were recruited from primary schools in Newcastle upon Tyne in the North-East of England specifically from areas characterised as economically disadvantaged with estimated annual household incomes of £52,500 [23]. In determining ethnic group classifications, we adopted the UK government’s recommended terminology “ethnic minority groups” rather than “BAME” (Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic) as the latter term has been identified as non-inclusive, failing to encompass groups such as those of mixed heritage [24]. For this study, the purposive sampling strategy, which focuses on participant selection with an emphasis on the study’s objectives, was employed [25]. Primary schools with diverse ethnic representation were initially approached with a letter of introduction and comprehensive study information. Interested schools and teachers were subsequently contacted by the first author to schedule interviews with information and consent forms provided in advance.

2.1.1. Sample characteristics.

The recruitment strategy yielded eight participants aged between 23 and 61 years, comprising: one head teacher, two physical education (PE) teachers, three classroom teachers, and two teaching assistants. All participants worked in primary schools attended by children from both ethnic minority and White British backgrounds. This diverse sampling approach was deliberately employed to ensure methodological rigour. By collecting data from teachers with varied characteristics, including different ethnicities, gender, (one male and seven female participants), and teaching roles, we ensured that findings were comprehensive and reflected multiple perspectives [26].

To ensure anonymity, unique codes were assigned to both schools and participants, guaranteeing that all collected and stored data contained no personal identifiers that could reveal participant or school identities. Demographic details of the participants are provided in Table 1 below.

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Table 1. Demographic information of schools and participants.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342233.t001

Participants were eligible for inclusion if they: (1) were currently employed as a primary school teacher in the UK; (2) demonstrated proficiency in English; and (3) provided informed consent. A total of eight teachers from five primary schools participated in this study. These five schools collectively enrolled 1,516 children; with the proportion of children whose first language was not English ranging from 18.8% to 60%. All data collection was conducted by the first author (JO). Recruitment and data collection stopped once saturation was reached, as further interviews were not adding new insights relevant to the research questions.

3. Results

3.1. Themes

A total of seven barriers and nine motivators were inductively identified in this study (Table 2).

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Table 2. Themes: Barriers and motivators.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342233.t002

Although the analysis was conducted inductively, the identified themes clearly mapped to the different levels of socio-ecological theory and are thus presented below in the context of this theory. The socio-ecological theory posits that a person’s behaviour is influenced by factors at multiple levels including the intrapersonal, interpersonal, organisational (institutional), community and policy levels [34].

The identified themes show each level and how they impact the PA participation of children from ethnic minority groups (Fig 1). At the intrapersonal level, motivators identified include fun and wellbeing, while barriers identified include behavioural issues (e.g., age-related barriers, post-COVID impact) and screen time. At the interpersonal level, motivators and barriers identified include the social circle (friends, parents) and teachers. At the institutional level, barriers and motivators identified were based in school and they include the introduction of physical activity breaks and the introduction of a variety of sports. At the community level, environmental influences/obstacles were identified as barriers and motivators. At the public policy level, the local council with responsibility of funding for resources such as sports equipment, providing playing grounds, etc. was identified as a barrier. On the other hand, some of the teachers reported the availability of government funding for sports resources as a motivator to PA participation in children from ethnic minority groups.

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Fig 1. Socio-ecological representation of themes.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342233.g001

4. Discussion

The aim of this study was to explore teachers’ perspectives on barriers and motivators to PA participation among children from ethnic minority groups and to determine, through suggestions, how schools can be better supported to provide a PA-enabling environment for children from ethnic minority groups. Findings from this study suggest barriers and motivators to PA participation in children from ethnic minority groups occur at different levels beginning from the individuals themselves to external influence beyond the child’s control. The barriers to PA participation among children from ethnic minority groups identified by the teachers through an inductive analytical method included behavioural issues, screen time, social circle, parents, teachers, environmental obstacles, inadequate resources and the local authority. On the other hand, motivators included fun and wellbeing, social circle, teachers, the introduction of physical activity breaks, the introduction of a variety of sports, schools, environmental influences, resources, and the government. The identified barriers and motivators can be better understood using the socio-ecological theory [35,36].

The socio-ecological theory provides a theoretical understanding of PA behaviour in children [36]. For example, it identifies the different levels or factors that could impact the uptake of PA in children, including children from ethnic minority groups, and this includes individual characteristics (e.g., beliefs, attitude, gender), the social environment (parents, friends), the physical environment (equipment, sports facilities) and government policies, funding, and provision of sporting equipment [37]. Understanding the PA behaviour of children from ethnic minority groups and/or developing a PA intervention purposed to address health inequality could therefore be guided by the socio-ecological model [38]. We would like to use this theory as the theoretical basis to explain the results, as well as a guide for future studies.

At the intrapersonal level, several behavioural issues were reported by the teachers as a barrier to PA participation in children from ethnic minority groups. Some of the behavioural barriers were linked to peer pressure (social circle barriers) while others were linked to increased screen time. Other behavioural issues were linked to negative feedback with regards to race and performance. These behavioural issues make it difficult for some of the teachers to effectively supervise the children during PA, and some of the teachers even cancel PE activities. Some of the teachers attributed these behavioural issues to the detrimental impact of COVID-19, tying together the themes of behavioural issues and screen time [39]. The March 2020 COVID-19 pandemic led to precautionary measures, including the closure of schools, social distancing and staying at home [40]. Some of the teachers suggested that an increase in screen time was a harmful impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, and evidence prior to the pandemic noted that improved technology and excessive computer usage led to increased screen time viewing on laptops, televisions, phones, and electronic tablets, and was a risk factor for high levels of physical inactivity [41]. In contrast, other children (mostly White British children) demonstrated self-autonomy and self-confidence and considered PA to be enjoyable and beneficial to their mental health and wellness [16]. The teachers also reported playing outdoors as a huge motivating factor for children, especially from ethnic minority groups. Play was associated with fun (motivator), and consequently wellbeing and positive behaviour, especially if it was with friends [16], thus progressing from the intrapersonal to interpersonal level of the socio-ecological theory. In conducting any form of health promotion, there is a need to engage all stakeholders for an inclusive outcome [42]. This is because a previous qualitative study conducted with children from one school in Newcastle upon Tyne to determine their perceptions of barriers and motivators to PA participation [16], also reported as a behavioural issue ‘negative feedback from teammates’. Such feedback can negatively affect the PA experience of some of the children, thus making them lose interest in PA. At the interpersonal level of influence, the home front was reported as a barrier in the form of a lack of parental PA support or involvement. This barrier was also identified in the qualitative children study [16]; the children from ethnic minority groups reported parents as barriers as the parents would not let them go out to play [16]. The teachers in this study also reported that parents did not let their children out to play, but unlike the children’s study, this was linked to safety issues or fear of gang-related activities. The present study reports parents as barriers because of their professional expectation or may even overburden them with household chores. In contrast, parents, siblings, friends and family members were reported by some of the children from the white British groups, as motivating factors in PA participation [16]. This emphasizes the critical role that parents/guardians play in children participating in PA, suggesting a need to create more awareness among parents from ethnic minority groups on the need to support their children in PA activities.

An aversion to supervising PA activities due to limited PA knowledge was reported by some of the teachers as a barrier to PA participation. In contrast, children from ethnic minority groups reported the positive role their PE teacher played in motivating them to participate in PA by reorganising the team sports and motivating them to be kind to one another [16]. This barrier could be addressed through appropriate staff training, as suggested by one of the participants when asked how schools could be better supported in their PA provision [43]. In addition to training, staff members should be educated on the importance of PA [44]. This brings to the fore Ajzen’s theory of planned behaviour [45], which suggests a person’s behaviour is influenced by their intention and control; intentions (in this case to teach PA) are influenced by the subjective norm, attitude, and perceived behavioural control relating to the behavioural issues exhibited by the children [46]. Available evidence suggests a correlation between perceived behavioural control and attitude on intention [47] and that professional or additional training using the theory of planned behaviour framework predicts inclusive training practice in teachers, thus improving intention and behaviour towards inclusive education in this case, PA education [48]. As the themes in this current study suggest, teachers play crucial roles as both motivators and potential barriers to the uptake and continuance of PA behaviour in children [49], there is therefore a need to positively impact their attitude [50], and this can be done through the recruitment, training and engagement of the teachers especially with regards to managing the behaviours of children and positively nudging them towards the uptake of PA [51]. In addition to addressing teachers’ attitudes, there is a need to address subjective norms and perceived behavioural control. This can be achieved by creating an environment within the school in which staff support ethnically diverse children with PA, which will in turn create positive norms around PA. Furthermore, the training provided should be aimed at increasing teachers’ self-efficacy for the delivery of PA sessions, thereby improving their perceived behavioural control [52].

The next level of influence is the institutional level, and this includes the schools where the children spend most of their waking hours. The introduction of a variety of sports and the structuring of sports activities, along with free after-school clubs, were mentioned as very important factors for PA participation in children from ethnic minority groups in the qualitative study [16]. School activities such as playtime and PE address the deficit in PA levels in less active children, especially in children from lower socio-economic groups and those from ethnic minority groups who may lack safe neighbourhoods for walking or free, accessible recreational facilities and parks [53].

Influences on PA at the next level of the socio-ecological theory, are the community or environmental level. These include factors such as weather, homes lacking community playing areas, safe walking, and bike paths. The impact of the environment such as suitable walking or playing grounds, and the lack of playing areas at home were also reported by the teachers as factors influencing children’s PA participation. Similarly, some of the children in the qualitative study reported the lack of playing areas at home, which made participation in PA difficult [16]. Furthermore, at the environmental level, perception of safety was reported as a barrier to PA participation in this current study. However, perception of safety was not reported in the qualitative study of children, this could be due to their age as they were aged 8–11 years [16]. However, this factor plays a very crucial role in PA participation in children from ethnic minority groups, especially those from lower socio-economic status [5].

The environmental level closely relates with the policy level as factors such as the provision of PA infrastructures in schools and communities are a part of government responsibilities, thus suggesting a need for multilevel collaboration at all the levels especially between schools and the government. This cannot be overemphasised in the promotion of PA for children, as the government not only issues guiding policies but also determines the allotted play and PE time and provides the funding needed for sports equipment, among other things [54]. Policies necessitating time and resources for PE and PA in schools, as well as community structures that make being physically active accessible and convenient, are important factors in making schools and communities healthier settings [55]. Furthermore, the introduction of free, safe and accessible community centres and free after-school clubs as reported in this and a previous study [16], will go a long way in allaying the fears of parents and addressing the perception of safety barriers, while at the same time addressing the inadequate resource barrier (finance and time) they face [54]. However, government policies and the provision of resources alone will not address concerns about physical inactivity. Individual characteristics that influence PA decisions, such as the religious and socio-cultural backgrounds of ethnic minority groups must be considered in efforts to engage children in physical education programmes that promote active lives [56].

If we are to actively address inequality, diversity, and inclusivity, there is a need to bridge the persistent gaps between a largely White profession (teachers) and ethnically diverse school populations as one size might not fit all [57]. What children do and learn in PE classes and how they engage in PA are determined by the learning climate created and established by the teachers [55]. Furthermore, addressing the PA needs of children from ethnic minority groups that occur at the various levels of impact, as reported in the children’s qualitative study [16] and in the present study will go a long way in addressing the gaps in PA levels in children from ethnic minority groups [43]. In addition, addressing teacher-identified needs and gaps can improve working conditions and reduce existing PA inequities as well as address inequalities that children from ethnic minority groups, might experience in participating in PA; this is because teachers play very crucial roles, as evidenced from this study and other studies [58]. As such, there is a need to explore in depth, government’s perception of PA barriers and motivators among children from ethnic minority group, as well as seek ways to increase and improve PA-focused training for all teachers with a focus on ethnically diverse populations, to improve the PA experience for all children and especially children from ethnic minority groups [24]. This would improve teachers’ confidence in PA planning and delivery, resulting in better implementation and thereby improved student outcomes as well as addressing gaps in PA levels [51].

Supporting information

Acknowledgments

Our sincere appreciation and gratitude go to the schools and teachers for their time spent participating in this study.