Introduction

Livestock diseases are a major constraint to cattle and small ruminant production in Zambia [1]. East Coast fever (ECF), caused by Theileria parva (T. parva), was the second most prevalent disease that affected eight of the ten Zambian provinces [2], and 19.3% livestock keeping households in Zambia in 2023 [1]. As such, Theileria Parva (T. parva) infections are significant in Zambia because they are endemically responsible for high morbidity and mortalities (Makala et al., 2003; Nambota et al., 1994), and are therefore the focus of government interventions and livestock movement regulations (DVS, 2022).

Regional economic losses to ECF have been estimated at 1 million cattle/year estimated at nearly $300 million [3]. In Zambia, ECF losses are due to morbidity and mortality. The Southern province of Zambia is estimated to have lost nearly 800,000 cattle, valued at $238 million, between 1980 and the 1990s, predominantly attributed to ECF. In 1991, of the 17,426 ECF cases, 8717 ended up in mortality. Similarly, in 1992, of the 14,594 reported ECF cases, 6903 ended up in mortality. Morbidity losses are mainly due to loss in milk production from sick animals, loss in beef and manure production [2].

Theileria parva was first reported in Zambia in 1922, with a significant incidence of disease after 1946. Intensified integrated control interventions were undertaken, including vector control, chemotherapy, stock movement regulation, and, later on, immunization, which was undertaken between 1983 and 1986 [4] using the Muguga cocktail from East Africa. After the utilisation of foreign T. parva strains from Kenya in Zambia, the disease “spread very rapidly, overflowing beyond its original borders” [4]. This phenomenon, where T. parva vaccine components are transmitted to unvaccinated animals have been reviewed [5]. The increased transmission is sometimes, associated with ECF outbreak. This was observed when Muguga cocktail-immunised cattle were imported into the Comoros island leading to an outbreak of ECF in naive local cattle [6]. As such, understanding the immunogenicity and cross protection potential of local T. parva strains is crucial [7–9].

East Coast fever (ECF) immunisation is largely based on understanding the host – parasite interactions, particularly the humoral immune response between local T. parva strains and cattle [7,9,10]. This localized approach calls for a periodic review of all research on T. parva in order to identify emerging trends, research gaps and recent developments [11]. Since T. parva was identified in Zambia in 1922, to the best of our knowledge, there has just been one review focused on ECF in Zambia [4] conducted over 30 years ago, and another broader review covered major tick borne diseases, including ECF [12].

Methods

Discussion

This study protocol is an undertaking to consolidate research on one of the most important livestock diseases in the Zambia, and could be the most comprehensive literature review as it combines published peer reviewed research and grey literauture from government sources, international organizations and laboratories. This is important to understand what is known and what is not known.

Despite the promise of being comprehensive, the study has potential shortcomings mainly due to the inclusion criteria. Potential inaccessibility of some reports especially from international organizations, journal articles not in English and removal of conference abstracts will lead to loss of some data. Despite these shortcomings, the accessible sources are sufficient to provide a full picture on T. parva in Zambia.

It is our considered conclusion that this subject remains important and worth the effort of a comprehensive review of literature.

Supporting information