Data collection and analysis

We conducted in-depth interviews with participants in their households in settings that ensured privacy. All interviews were conducted individually and separately with mothers, husbands, and mothers-in-law to allow them to share their perspectives independently and to minimize potential influence from other family members.

Data were collected in November 2022 by a team of trained qualitative researchers (both male and female), who received training on the study objectives, interview techniques, probing methods, and ethical considerations, including informed consent and confidentiality. Each interview lasted approximately 40–60 minutes and was conducted in Bangla. Interviews were audio-recorded with participant’s consent.

The interview guide included open-ended questions to facilitate in-depth exploration of participants’ experiences and perceptions of LPG stove use, including its influence on daily routines, time use, childcare practices, and overall well-being. While this study focuses on caregiving-related outcomes, participants were also encouraged to discuss broader perceived benefits of LPG use, such as reduced smoke exposure and increased convenience. The full interview guide is provided in Appendix A.

Interviews were transcribed verbatim in Bengali using TRANSKRIPTOR [14] software and subsequently imported into ATLAS.ti [15] for coding and analysis.

We used an inductive thematic analysis approach following the framework described by Braun and Clarke to identify patterns and develop themes from data [16].

Two researchers independently coded the transcript and met regularly to compare and reconcile coding differences. The codes were then grouped into categories, which were further refined into themes through iterative discussions within the research team. Data were managed using atlas.ti software and backup copies were kept in password-protected computers accessed by the research team members only.

Ethical considerations

This study was approved by the ethical review committee of icddr,b (PR-17103) and the Human Research Ethics Committee of the University of Sydney, Australia (0/2018/HE000717). Informed written consent was obtained from all participants before the interviews.

Theme 1: Increased time availability through reduced cooking burden

Mother participants who were primary cooks reported increased time availability, which was primarily due to the efficiency of LPG stoves. Traditional clay stoves require continuous tending, including frequent feeding of fuel, maintaining the fire, and close monitoring to sustain combustion. These demands often require women to remain physically present near the stove, limiting their ability to engage in other tasks simultaneously. They consistently reported that LPG stoves substantially reduced cooking time, lessened their cooking workload, and created opportunities for engaging in parallel activities. These direct benefits translated into several key changes in their daily routines: increased time availability specifically for childcare, the ability to streamline other household tasks, and a subsequent reduction in their overall domestic burden. Consequently, the adoption of LPG technology appeared to provide mothers with additional time, a crucial resource which they can potentially allocate towards childcare responsibilities.

Every mother unanimously affirmed that this time-saving benefit has freed up time to engage more with their children. A mother described how she was able to take better care of her child after being an LPG stove user.

“Normally, I have to do all the housework and bring up the children. Most of the time it gets difficult to take care of my child. But now after using the LPG stove, I save time and I get some (more) time to spend with my child.” IDI-04

Another mother explained how the LPG stove reduced her cooking time by saying,

“Now LPG use has saved my time …and I have the time for feeding my baby myself and taking leisurely walks with her. I can even enjoy precious moments of play with her.” IDI-07

A mother-in-law shared how her daughter-in-law has effectively saved time managing household chores through the use of the LPG stove.

“Before using LPG, my daughter-in-law was constantly rushed, spending hours on cooking. …Now, she has more time to care for her child, even holding them close whenever they cry.” IDI-17

Several husbands shared that since their wives began using gas stoves, they could now complete their morning cooking and other tasks more time efficiently. One husband expressed,

“…Using LPG has helped my wife prepare meals and even reheat food in the morning. Not only does she have time to bathe her baby and even hold her when she has time[...] and it feels good that she can take care of the baby along with all her chores.” IDI-27

Participants expressed their ability to engage in parallel activities while cooking. These included simultaneously cutting vegetables while boiling water, attending to other household chores, or even pursuing personal interests. Both mothers-in-law and husbands observed these changes and the adoption of parallel activities, and included women taking baths, sweeping the yard, cleaning rooms tending to cattle, all while food was cooking on the LPG stove.

“When I used to cook in clay stove, I had to stay with that one task for a long time, as a result of which the time goes by and the work does not progress. Now I can breastfeed my younger child, and also can sweep the rooms, leaving the food to cook on gas stove. During cooking now, I can perform additional 2-3 tasks simultaneously.” IDI-10

A mother-in-law shared her observations about the multitasking abilities her daughter-in-law demonstrated while using the LPG stove.

“My daughter in law had to allocate much time in front of the clay stove when she used to cook using dry leaves. She had to complete her daily tasks one by one since she could not leave the cooking place. But now gas stove has brought about a change, she sweeps the yard or takes a bath when she cooks.” IDI-20

Women and mothers-in-law alike noted that these parallel activities included childcare responsibilities and various other household tasks.

Theme 2: Enhanced caregiver capacity through reduced fatigue and stress

The second prominent theme emerging from the data reflects improvements in mothers’ caregiving capacity associated with reduced physical fatigue and psychological stress following the adoption of LPG stoves. Participants consistently described how the shift away from labor-intensive traditional cooking methods alleviated physical strain and reduced the burden of daily household tasks.

Several mothers directly contrasted the demanding nature of cooking with traditional clay stoves with the comparatively lower effort required when using LPG. Beyond physical relief, many also reported a decline in stress related to managing household responsibilities, contributing to an improvement in their physical and mental well-being. Husbands’ interviews often echoed this perspective, noting visible changes in mothers’ energy levels and emotional state.

Decrease in physical exhaustion

Mothers expressed feeling less tired, less weak, and experiencing fewer bouts of dizziness after transitioning to LPG stoves. The reduced need for fuel collection, shorter cooking durations, and decreased physical exertion in the kitchen contributed to improved physical well-being.

“I live with my mother-in-law and my sister in-law, but I do most of the household works. I used to collect dry leaves outside, slash solid fuels. Further, I spent long hours cooking on clay stove which often left me fatigued and sometimes even dizzy due to sitting longer in front of the stove. After starting cooking in gas stove, I do not have to sit in front of the stove at a stretch. Now I use gas stove, and I do not have to go outside to collect dry leaves or solid fuel which has greatly eased my physical burden. Now I get less tired and feel better physically.” IDI-19

Moreover, many husbands and mothers-in-law reported improvements in mothers’ overall mood and daily functioning. A husband described the change in his wife following the reduction in her workload:

“My wife often used to have a serious mood in the afternoon, and I could understand with her hard work throughout the day. It is good that now she uses a gas stove, many of her demanding tasks are no longer necessary. When I return home in the afternoon, I find her in a cheerful mood.” IDI-15

Decrease in mental stress of household roles

Mothers also described a reduction in mental stress, particularly related to the pressures of managing cooking and household responsibilities during busy periods of the day. The consistent availability of LPG and the reduced complexity of cooking helped alleviate anxiety and time-related pressures.

“As a housewife I have to worry every time in my in-laws’ home wondering if I can cook quickly, provide breakfast for my children and above all, my husband. All these thoughts create mental stress for me. Now after being a gas stove user, I can ensure that my children can have breakfast before they go to school and my husband can start his day with a meal before going to work. So now my mental stress is eased.” IDI-02

Several mothers-in-law also highlighted the reduction in morning stress, noting that women no longer faced uncertainty related to fuel availability or delays in meal preparation.

“My daughter-in-law always tries to prepare breakfast for the whole family. But it was often difficult when she had to cook using dry leaves and straw. Sometimes there was no fuel, and she had to go out to collect it. Now, with the availability of LPG stoves, she prepares breakfast on time every day.” IDI-26

A few husbands similarly observed that their wives appeared more relaxed and less pressured in managing daily household routines after adopting LPG.

Theme 3: Increased caregiving opportunities through the translation of time and capacity gains

This theme demonstrates how gains in time availability and improvements in caregiver capacity created opportunities for mothers to engage more actively in childcare. Participants described how reduced time pressure and physical burden allowed them to translate these gains into more frequent, attentive, and responsive caregiving practices across different contexts.

Increased mother-child closeness and interaction

Participants described that increased time flexibility and reduced work burden created new opportunities to remain physically close to their children while performing household tasks. This enabled more frequent holding, comforting, and interaction, contributing to greater mother-child closeness and engagement in daily routines.

One mother reflected on the contrast between her experiences with her children:

“...My eldest baby wouldn't stop crying if I didn't cradle her in my arms. Unfortunately, I couldn't always hold her close because our old clay stove required frequent refueling, filling the kitchen with fumes. My youngest baby’s fate is better because we have a gas stove and cooking has become more manageable. Now I can hold my younger child on my lap while preparing meals. It's a remarkable feeling, as I couldn't provide the same comfort to my elder child in the past.” IDI-13

Another mother described how improved flexibility allowed her to manage childcare alongside cooking:

“Every morning at 11 a.m., like clockwork, the baby goes to sleep once more. I have discovered that lying down and breastfeeding her during this time helps her fall asleep faster and more peacefully. Previously, I could not leave the pots unattended for fear of burning, which often caused delays in putting the baby to bed, and the baby would cry in discomfort. Now I have a gas stove, I can control the cooking process. I reduce the flame and can now take some time to sleep beside the baby, and she seems content and calm without any insistence on her part.” IDI-16

Breastfeeding emerged as an important domain where these opportunities became evident. Mothers described being able to breastfeed more frequently and without interruption as cooking tasks became more manageable. Reduced need for continuous monitoring of the stove allowed mothers to respond to feeding cues in a timely manner.

Family members also observed these changes in maternal engagement. As one mother-in-law noted:

“Since receiving the gas stove, my daughter-in-law responds to the child much more quickly. She talks, sings, and interacts with the baby more than before.” (IDI-29)

Increased caregiving during child illness

Participants reported being better able to provide continuous and attentive care when children were ill. Previously, cooking demands often limit their ability to remain physically present with a sick child.

One mother explained:

“When my first child was sick, I could not stay with them all the time because of household work like cooking, cleaning, maintaining cattle etc. But after getting the LPG stove for my second child, I now have the opportunity to stay close and take care of the child whenever she is ill.” IDI-13

A mother-in-law similarly observed a change in caregiving behavior during illness:

“Previously, when the baby was sick, I often had to take care of her because the mother was busy with household work. Now I see that she is able to hold the baby more often and stay with her during illness.” IDI-17

Improved night-time caregiving

Improved caregiving practices extended to night-time care, where mothers reported being more responsive and capable of attending to their children’s needs. Reduced workload and better energy management during the day enabled them to remain attentive at night.

One mother described:

“If the baby defecates at night, it becomes very difficult to clean him. And if it is a winter night, I am very afraid that the baby will catch cold. Since we have a gas stove, heating water and cleaning the baby is much easier.” IDI-06

A husband also reflected on this change:

“My wife used to be exhausted after the whole day’s work and sometimes slept through the night even if the child cried. Since she started using a gas stove, she seems more attentive and is able to care for the child even at night.” IDI-33

Increased responsiveness to children’s needs

Another key improvement was mothers’ ability to respond more promptly and consistently to children’s immediate needs. Under traditional cooking conditions, safety concerns and time constraints often delayed responses.

One mother shared:

“Before, if my child cried while I was cooking, I had to call out to him from the kitchen. I could not leave the stove because of the risk of fire. Now, with the gas stove, I can immediately go and pick up my child when he cries.” IDI-11

Similarly, a mother-in-law observed:

“Now, even while cooking, she picks up the baby whenever he cries and feeds him. She can manage both cooking and feeding the baby at the same time.” IDI-20

Another participant highlighted this simultaneous caregiving ability:

“When the baby cries, I can now pick the child up and continue cooking at the same time. With the traditional stove, this was not possible.” IDI-45

Strengths and limitations

A key strength of this study lies in its triangulation of findings through interviews with mothers, their husbands, and mothers-in-law. This multi-perspective approach facilitated a richer understanding of changes in practices following the adoption of LPG and helped validate mothers’ accounts by incorporating the viewpoints of their spouses and mothers-in-law. A potential limitation is response bias.

Participants received free LPG stoves from the project team and were aware that the researchers were affiliated with the project, which may have positively influenced their responses during interviews.

Further, we were not able to objectively assess parenting practices, breastfeeding behaviors, or time use, and therefore our findings are based on self-reported perceptions rather than direct measurement.