1. Introduction

Livestock is a vital sub-sector of agriculture in Bangladesh, significantly contributing to agricultural output and the national economy [1]. The country hosts a diverse range of livestock, primarily including cattle, goats, sheep, poultry (such as chickens and ducks), and an increasing number of buffalo. In the fiscal year 2022−23, the livestock population comprised approximately 24.8 million cattle, 26.9 million goats, 1.5 million buffaloes, and 3.8 million sheep. However, the poultry industry remains predominant, with a population of 385.8 million birds [2]. Smallholder farmers dominate the sector, particularly in cattle and poultry rearing, which are the most economically significant due to their contributions to meat, milk, and egg production. Nationally, Bangladesh produced an estimated 14.1 million metric tons of milk and 8.7 million metric tons of meat, with poultry accounting for nearly 50% of total meat production. Egg production reached approximately 23.4 billion annually [2]. In the fiscal year 2022–23, livestock productivity grew by an estimated 3.2%, contributing about 16.4% to the agricultural GDP and approximately 1.9% to the overall GDP [3].

One in every three persons worldwide faces a malnutrition problem [4], contributing to the death of one in five mothers [5]. Like many other developing countries, Bangladesh grapples with overpopulation and malnutrition as significant concerns [6]. Recognized as key players in nutrition, women`s dietary diversity serves as a major indicator of nutritional outcomes for women and children [7,8]. Dietary diversity denotes the number of different food groups consumed over a specific period, often a day or a week [9,10]. In developing countries, starchy staple foods are predominant, while fruits, vegetables, and animal-source foods are consumed in limited quantities, placing the population, especially women, at high risk of micronutrient deficiency [11–14]. Poor dietary habits and limited access to a diverse range of foods contribute to maternal malnutrition [13,15,16], which has become a significant global health challenge, increasing the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes, poor infant survival, and heightened susceptibility to chronic diseases later in life [17].

Dietary diversification is recommended to ensure adequate nutrient intake [18,19], as numerous studies have shown that dietary diversity correlates with increased nutrient intake [18,20,21]. Maintaining good nutrition requires adequate nutrient intake, often associated with food variety and diet quality [22]. Among South Asian countries, Bangladesh has the lowest per capita calorie availability and faces frequent adverse climate conditions, which pose risks to domestic agricultural productivity, including food availability [23,24].

Malnutrition poses a significant concern in Bangladesh and other developing countries [6]. Only 14% of individuals in Bangladesh exhibit a higher dietary diversity (DD) score, suggesting potential issues with the country’s overall nutritional quality [25]. Socio-regional disparities in nutritional status persist globally [26], and Bangladesh experiences significant variations in nutritional status across regions [27–29], impacting central budget allocation [30] and socio-cultural perceptions [31]. Differential regional budget allocation exacerbates malnutrition among women and children [32,33]. Socio-cultural disparities, including gender norms and food culture, contribute to the spatial distribution of malnutrition, particularly affecting women and children [34]. Considering their energy expenditure and social status, these factors also impact women’s health [35]. Social and religious norms shape food customs [36]. A healthy diet plays a crucial role in the nutritional status of women of reproductive age, but many women in Bangladesh struggle to achieve dietary diversity [37–40].

Some studies frequently regard dietary diversity as an outcome variable, often measured through the 24-hour recall method [37,41,42]. However, they often overlook sufficient calorie consumption, which ensures women’s nutrient adequacy. Numerous studies have established a connection between dietary diversity and various maternal demographic factors, such as age, parity, education level, nutritional knowledge, employment status, household wealth, size, access to resources, morbidity, and environmental factors like water source, sanitation, and food safety [37,42,43]. Also, this research has highlighted significant gaps between nutrient intakes and requirements, underscoring the importance of dietary diversity in enhancing nutrient absorption and overall health [44,45].

Additionally, several studies have shown that women generally possess a better understanding of nutrition across various domains, as demonstrated by numerous assessments of nutritional knowledge [27]. This knowledge implies that individuals with more diverse diets are likely to meet their nutrient requirements, highlighting the connection between dietary diversity and nutrient intake. Some studies have identified significant gaps between nutrient intakes and requirements, emphasizing the importance of dietary diversity in improving nutrient absorption and overall health [13,41]. These studies have also explored predictors of dietary diversity and its relationship with nutritional status, particularly among pregnant women, including household food consumption scores [46]. Some studies have shown that women engage in livestock activities such as rearing, fodder collection, feeding, healthcare, milking, and household-level processing, which could have both positive and negative impacts on women`s nutrition [47–50]. Thus, it is evident that there is a shortage of studies considering dietary diversity alongside sufficient calorie consumption as indicators of nutritional security for women. While a more diverse diet may lead to higher nutrient intake, ensuring adequate calorie consumption based on age and workload could provide a more direct and comprehensive measure. However, the combination of minimum dietary intake and calorie consumption has received little attention in the context of women’s nutritional security. Therefore, this study aims to address this knowledge gap by assessing women’s nutritional security status and exploring the determinants of that status. Additionally, it provides guidelines for policy formulation and identifies areas for future research, contributing empirical evidence that integrates dietary diversity and calorie adequacy as joint indicators of women’s nutritional security, while explicitly comparing households with and without livestock, an approach that has received limited attention in the Bangladeshi context.

2. Methods

2.2 Description of the study variables

Measurement/estimation of different exploratory variables.

Table 1 presents the various independent/ exploratory variables used in the study. Providing a general description of these variables can enhance understanding of their nature and distribution.

Download:

• PPT
  PowerPoint slide
• PNG
  larger image
• TIFF
  original image

Table 1. Description of the exploratory variables.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335146.t001

The measure of women`s nutrition knowledge, as referenced in the above table, was developed to assess their understanding of key nutrition concepts relevant to rural Bangladeshi contexts. This aligns with the survey’s comprehensive approach, which includes detailed data collection on individual household members` dietary intake and anthropometric measurements. It was assessed using several nutrition-related questions:

• How long after birth should a baby start breastfeeding?
• What should a woman do with the “first milk” or colostrum?
• How often should a baby breastfeed?
• Do you think that infants under six months of age should be given water if it is hot weather?
• When should a baby receive liquids (including water) besides breast milk?
• At what age should a baby first start to receive food in addition to breastfeeding?
• What should a woman do regarding child feeding when a child under six months has diarrhea?
• What should a woman do regarding child feeding when a child over six months has diarrhea?
• When should you wash your hands?
• Things you can do to encourage young children to eat their food.
• What kind of foods does a young child (<24 months) need to grow and develop their brain?

Each indicator/question mentioned above is binary in response types, indicating whether women know specific information. A response is coded as `1` if a woman answers accurately or is well-informed, and `0` if she does not know the answer. This coding system distinguishes between positive (coded as 1) and negative (coded as 0) responses, following established research methodologies [52,53]. Various aspects of breastfeeding practices and maternal caregiving behaviors were evaluated using specific questionnaire items. For example, the timing of breastfeeding initiation was coded as `1` if a woman breastfed immediately after birth or within one hour of delivery and `0` otherwise. Similarly, the importance of providing colostrum to newborns was assessed, with affirmative responses coded as `1` and negative responses as `0`. Breastfeeding frequency based on the baby’s cues was categorized as `1`, while other responses were coded as `0`. Opinions on offering water to infants under six months in hot weather were recorded as `1` for affirmative responses and `0` otherwise. The survey also captured mothers’ awareness of infants receiving liquids or complementary foods at six months or older, coded accordingly. Furthermore, maternal actions during infant diarrhea episodes, including a continuation of breastfeeding for children under six months, were coded as `1`, and cessation or continuation with ORS/home-prepared solution for children over six months were recorded similarly. Handwashing practices before caregiving tasks were assessed, with affirmative responses coded as `1` and uncertainty or negative responses as `0`. Maternal strategies to encourage healthy eating habits in children were recorded as `1` if adopted and `0` if not. Lastly, maternal knowledge about the nutritional needs of young children (<24 months) for optimal growth and brain development was documented. This classification approach aligns with the survey’s design, aiming to capture meaningful variations in nutrition knowledge that may influence household dietary practices and nutritional outcomes.

To aggregate the responses, the sum of all variables for an individual was divided by 11 (the total number of questions) and multiplied by 100 to transform it into a percentage. The scale was further classified into three groups: poor if the score lies between 0% to 50%, fair if the score lies between 51% to 75%, and good if the score lies above 75%. This method of categorization was used by [54].

2.3 Outcome/ explanatory variable

The outcome variable of the study is women’s nutritional security status, estimated using dietary diversity and calorie consumption. Dietary diversity is assessed based on the consumption of nine food groups, as detailed in Table 2.

Download:

• PPT
  PowerPoint slide
• PNG
  larger image
• TIFF
  original image

Table 2. Food groups used to estimate women’s dietary diversity score.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335146.t002

Women meeting the minimum dietary intake criterion of consuming at least five or more groups [56] and consuming sufficient calories based on their age and daily activity level [57], are classified as nutritionally secure. The sufficient calorie consumption in the last 24 hours has specific cut-off points depending on age and activity level. For instance, women aged 19–30 years with a sedentary lifestyle require 1800–2000 calories daily, while those with moderate to active lifestyles need 2000–2200 or 2400 calories, respectively [58]. Meeting or exceeding these calorie requirements within a 24-hour period defines sufficient calorie consumption for women. The study assumes all women are moderately active due to regular household chores and other activities (formal employment). Calorie requirements for different age groups are as follows: 1400–1600 calories for ages 4–8, 1600–2000 for ages 9–13, 2000 for ages 14–18, 2000–2200 for ages 19–30, 2000 for ages 31–50, and 1800 for ages 51 to above [58]. Applying the minimum dietary intake and calorie requirements cut-off results in a binary variable: 1 indicates nutritional security when both conditions are met, and 0 indicates nutritional insecurity. The assessment of dietary diversity and calorie consumption was conducted in accordance with FAO recommendations [59,60].

2.4 Analytical technique

The study employed two primary types of analysis: descriptive and inferential. In the descriptive analysis, summary statistics such as mean, standard deviation, minimum, and maximum were calculated for all continuous and discrete variables. Frequency and percentage distributions were reported for qualitative variables. Both tabular and graphical representations were utilized. For example, employment status, a qualitative variable with two categories (employed and unemployed), was analysed by reporting the percentage of individuals in each category among the total observations.

Binary logit regression model.

The outcome variable in this study is binary. To analyze it, the study opted for the binomial logit model, which is suitable when exploratory variables are dichotomous [61]. The equation form of this model is as follows;

Where, p is the probability that the event Y occurs, p(Y = 1)[range = 0–1]

The odds ratio is defined as:

p/(1-p) is the “odds ratio’’[range = 0 to ∞]

Ln[p/(1-p)]: log odds ratio, or “logit”[range = -∞ to +∞]

As the outcome variable of this study is reported in binary form, the chosen econometric model is as follows.

For the entire household, the empirical equation is:

And, to empirically analyse the difference between households that have livestock and those that do not, the following equation is specified:

The Adjusted odds ratio was used to explain the relationship between the explanatory and outcome variables. All analyses were conducted using STATA v17 software.

3. Results

3.1 Descriptive statistics of different exploratory variables

Descriptive statistics for the variables used in the study are presented in Appendix S1 Table. On average, women had approximately 2 years of education, with a standard deviation of 4 years. Educational attainment ranged from 0 to 16 years across the entire dataset and its subsets. The average household size was 4, ranging from 1 to 18 members. Households with livestock tended to be slightly larger, with a maximum of 18 members compared to 17 members in households without livestock.

The average monthly household income was approximately TK (1 US$ = 122 TK [62]) 5,500, with a standard deviation of TK 7251, ranging from TK 0 to TK 125,000. Households with livestock had an average monthly income of TK 300 higher than the entire population, ranging from TK 0 to TK 80,000. In contrast, households without livestock had an average income of TK 5,201.23, with the same income range as the entire population.

The average farm size for all households was nearly 9 decimals, ranging from 0 to 170 decimals. Livestock-rearing households had slightly larger farm sizes, averaging 10 decimals with a maximum of 122 decimals, compared to non-livestock-rearing households with an average of 8 decimals and a range from 0 to 170 decimals.

Approximately 49% of households reported owning livestock. Employment rates were higher in households with livestock, with 95% of women employed, compared to 85% in all households. Conversely, non-livestock-rearing households had a lower employment rate of 74%. Regarding mobile phone ownership, nearly half of all respondents did not have a personal mobile phone, with a slightly higher percentage of mobile phone users in households without livestock. Regarding nutritional knowledge and health consultations, around 93% of women had poor to fair nutritional knowledge, and 88% did not consult with a doctor. Women’s nutritional knowledge is a composite variable, with all constituent variables illustrated in Fig 1. Across the entire population, approximately 52% of women were aware of the recommended time for initiating breastfeeding after birth. This proportion decreased by 2% and 3% among women from households owning and not owning livestock, respectively.

Download:

• PPT
  PowerPoint slide
• PNG
  larger image
• TIFF
  original image

Fig 1. Illustrates notable disparities in the nutritional security status of women based on household livestock ownership.

Among women from livestock-owning households, 11.27% were classified as nutritionally secure, compared to only 6.74% in households without livestock. This suggests a positive association between livestock ownership and improved nutritional security for women. When considering the overall population, 8.96% of women were identified as nutritionally secure, indicating that livestock ownership may be a contributing factor to enhanced nutritional outcomes.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335146.g001

Regarding handling first milk, approximately 95% of women in both groups know the proper procedure, while nearly 94% of women in households without livestock are aware of it. Almost 50% of women in all groups are knowledgeable about the frequency of breastfeeding for infants. Concerning the provision of water to infants under six months in hot weather, around half of the women across all groups believe that water should not be given. Approximately 95% of women in the entire population, as well as those from households without livestock, are aware of the appropriate age for introducing liquids other than breast milk. This proportion drops slightly to 94% among women from households with livestock. Additionally, about 97% of women across all groups know the recommended age for introducing solid foods to infants. Within group 1, nearly 96% of women are unaware of the appropriate feeding practice for infants under six months suffering from diarrhea, with a slight decrease to 94% among women from households without livestock. Conversely, approximately 87% of women in all groups are knowledgeable about the appropriate diet for children over six months during episodes of diarrhea.

All women in both groups are aware of when to wash their hands. Approximately 89% of women across all groups understand how to encourage their young children to eat their food. Finally, nearly 99% of women in the entire population and households owning livestock are knowledgeable about the foods needed for a young child’s growth and brain development (under 24 months) (Table 3).

Download:

• PPT
  PowerPoint slide
• PNG
  larger image
• TIFF
  original image

Table 3. Nutrition knowledge-related indicators of women.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335146.t003

3.3 Determinants of women’s nutritional security status

Table 4 presents the results of the binary logit regression model on the nutritional security status of women. The analysis shows that households owning livestock are 1.507 times (p < 0.01) more likely to be nutritionally secure compared to those without livestock. Additionally, for every additional year of formal education attained by women, the likelihood of nutritional security increases by 1.026 times (p < 0.05) in Group 1 and by 1.051 times (p < 0.01) in Group 3. Moreover, each additional household member corresponds to a 1.224 times higher likelihood of nutrition security in Group 1, 1.194 times (p < 0.01) in Group 2, and 1.283 times (p < 0.01) in Group 3. A 1% increase in monthly income is associated with 1.019 times (p < 0.1) higher likelihood of nutritional security in Group 1 and 1.035 times (p < 0.05) in Group 2.

Download:

• PPT
  PowerPoint slide
• PNG
  larger image
• TIFF
  original image

Table 4. Determinants of women’s nutrition security (Binary logit regression model).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335146.t004

Similarly, a 1% increase in farm area corresponds to 1.066 times (p < 0.1) higher likelihood of nutritional security in Group 1 and 1.079 times (p < 0.1) in Group 2. Women who own mobile phones are 1.358 times (p < 0.01), 1.352 times (p < 0.05), and 1.365 times (p < 0.1) more likely to be nutritionally secure in entire households (Group 1), households with livestock (Group 2), and households without livestock (Group 3), respectively. Furthermore, women with good nutritional knowledge are 1.338 times (p < 0.1) (Group 1) and 1.433 times (p < 0.1) (Group 2) more likely to be nutritionally secure than those with poor to fair nutritional knowledge.

4. Discussions

The study revealed that approximately 11% of women are considered nutritionally secure. This finding is surprising given the overall progress observed in various sectors within the country, including health and nutrition [63]. Despite these advancements, the proportion of nutritionally secure women remains relatively low, highlighting persistent concerns. Several factors could contribute to this poor nutritional security status. For instance, the study considered a rough estimation of dietary intake and calorie consumption to evaluate estimating nutritional security status. Previous studies have indicated that high dietary diversity is not commonly observed among women in Bangladesh [37,42]. This suggests that many women may not consume adequate food according to their requirements, leading to a lower proportion of nutritionally secure women in the country.

Upon investigating the significant factors influencing women’s nutritional status, it became evident that households engaged in livestock production or possessing livestock appears to significantly enhance women’s nutritional well-being. Livestock serve not only as assets but also as sources of income and food supply, encompassing both large and small animals commonly reared in rural Bangladesh [64]. Over recent decades, the number of larger livestock has increased, contributing noticeably to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employment generation [65]. Additionally, milk and meat from livestock serve as valuable sources of protein [66,67]. Cattle and buffalo within households combine food and income sources, potentially reducing nutritional deprivation and enhancing employment opportunities. Livestock production presents a significant opportunity for poverty reduction [68], particularly in the developing world, where it is utilized as a tool for poverty alleviation [69]. As milk and meat consumption continue to increase over time [70] so does the demand, thereby generating employment opportunities [71]. In countries like India, the livestock sector has been targeted to reduce rural poverty [72], with livestock playing a crucial role in nutrition, health security, and employment [73]. These factors collectively underscore the vital role of livestock production in ensuring the nutritional security of women in rural areas of developing countries.

The study identified that women’s years of schooling significantly contribute to their nutritional security status. Formal education enhances individuals’ knowledge about diet, health, and related factors. With a broader knowledge base, women are more likely to understand their dietary needs, appreciate the importance of balanced nutrition, and take better care of their health and that of their family members. Educated woman are typically better equipped to utilize available resources effectively and make informed decisions regarding their health [74]. Higher levels of education are also associated with a better understanding of appropriate feeding practices [75]. Evidence from Bangladesh supports this notion, demonstrating a significant and positive association between higher levels of education and maternal dietary diversity [39]. Furthermore, increased dietary intake is linked to greater nutritional security for women. Therefore, investigating women`s education not only empowers them with knowledge but also contributes to improving their nutritional well-being.

Women from larger families often shoulder more responsibilities compared to those from smaller families. The distribution of household chores and caregiving tasks involves the participation of multiple family members rather than falling solely on one individual, such as the household head. In larger families, women typically engage in a range of activities, including household chores, child care, cooking, tending to livestock and poultry, farm and market visits, and hospital visits for themselves and family members. Conversely, women from small families also undertake similar tasks, but often with limited autonomy, as their roles are shaped by the influence of their husbands or household heads. By contrast, women in larger families tend to experience a shift in household dynamics, often gaining greater decision-making power and more flexibility in managing both domestic and productive activities. They gain increased access and control over resources and participate in household and farming decisions, which empowers them. The presence of more family members in larger households bolsters women’s confidence levels [76]. Moreover, larger households tend to have higher total earnings compared to smaller households, enabling them to afford a wider variety of foods. For example, households with dual incomes are more likely to achieve better food security scores than single-income households where both spouses are employed. Previous studies have shown a positive correlation between household size and women’s nutritional intake [46].

The monthly income of a family significantly influences the nutritional security status of women. An increase in income often correlates with greater dietary diversity. Higher-income individuals generally have greater purchasing power, allowing them to allocate more funds toward food products. This results in increased consumption of a variety of foods and ensures adequate nutrient intake. In addition to purchasing food, higher income levels also facilitate investment in nutritional education and knowledge [77]. Income can have multifaceted effects on various aspects of life, but it consistently leads to increased expenditure on food items, thereby enhancing the nutritional security of all household members, including women.

The farm area serves as both a source of food production and income generation for households. It not only provides food for consumption but also generates revenue through the sale of produce or land rental. Research indicates that a larger farm area tends to positively impact women’s nutritional security status. Contrary to these findings, a positive relationship between food intake and farm size, indicating that larger farm owners tend to consume more food [78]. Moreover, in Bangladesh, where large farm owners typically have higher incomes, increased food intake has been observed. Another study found that larger farm-size holders were more likely to achieve food security compared to smallholders in Bangladesh [79]. Therefore, a larger farm area contributes positively to women’s nutritional security status.

Mobile phones have become ubiquitous and indispensable in the contemporary era, with at least one device in every household. The possession of mobile phones by women can significantly enhance their nutritional security status. These devices enable women to communicate as needed and stay updated with information about their surroundings. Moreover, mobile phones provide a convenient platform for accessing media, through which women can obtain crucial information on food and nutritional security. Media exposure allows women to acquire knowledge about nutrition, including healthy recipes, dietary guidelines, and nutritional content [80,81]. Additionally, exposure to media positively influences women`s nutritional behaviors [81]. Furthermore, mobile phones facilitate the use of applications for weight and fitness measurements, as well as promote social support and peer learning on nutritional aspects [80,81]. In many rural Bangladeshi households, particularly those involved in livestock rearing, women often serve as the primary caretakers but may lack the autonomy to own or use mobile phones, highlighting intra-household inequality [82]. In rural areas, the primary barriers to mobile phone adoption are rooted in broader socioeconomic constraints, rather than being attributable solely to livestock ownership. Factors such as illiteracy, lack of access to electricity, and low household wealth were identified as significant demographic constraints to mobile phone ownership [83]. Thus, with access to a mobile phone, women can actively enhance their nutritional security status by leveraging communication, information, and support networks provided by these devices.

It is crucial to emphasize that the observed differences in nutritional security result from the interplay of multiple determinants rather than livestock ownership alone. While livestock provides both food and income opportunities, its nutritional benefits are enhanced when women are educated, households have higher incomes, and mobile phone access facilitates nutritional awareness. Larger households may also improve food security by pooling resources, and farm size contributes to both food availability and income. Additionally, nutritional knowledge enables women to translate resources into healthier dietary practices. These findings underline that livestock is one component within a complex system influencing women’s nutritional security.

A solid understanding of nutrition among women plays a crucial role in elevating their nutritional security status. This knowledge not only influences a woman`s dietary diversity but also benefits all household members. Nutrition knowledge encompasses a breadth of information about dietary needs, which, when internalized, positively shapes attitudes and translates into real-life practices. Proficient nutritional knowledge empowers women to make informed dietary choices, heightens awareness of nutritional requirements, improves resource management, and equips them with strategies to address malnutrition [84,85]. These findings are consistent with a study conducted in Kenya, emphasizing the universal significance of women`s nutrition knowledge in enhancing household nutritional security [41].

5. Conclusions and recommendations

Women’s nutritional security in rural Bangladesh remains inadequate, reflecting both economic and social vulnerabilities. This study demonstrates that livestock ownership is a significant determinant of women’s nutritional security, providing both food and economic stability. Although the difference in nutritional security between households with and without livestock may not be large, it is nonetheless statistically significant. Livestock not only contributes directly to women`s nutritional security but also holds a prestigious position as a valuable in rural areas. At the same time, other factors beyond livestock ownership also play important roles and should not be overlooked. These findings underscore that women’s nutritional security is shaped by the interaction of household-level resources and individual-level capabilities.

Based on the findings, several recommendations emerge. To enhance livestock production and improve women`s nutritional outcomes, comprehensive programs and policies should focus on cattle production and its key determinants, supported by sustainable and profitability infrastructure. Both formal and informal education, along with community awareness campaigns, should be promoted to foster a culture of learning. Leveraging contemporary technologies, particularly mobile phones, can facilitate knowledge dissemination, behavioral change and nutrition awareness among women. Interventions should prioritize regions with low livestock ownership, where improved access can substantially enhance women’s nutritional security.

Furthermore, a multifaceted policy approach that addresses the key factors identified in this study is likely to achieve better nutritional outcomes than a single or one-dimensional policy approach. Prioritizing women`s nutritional security at the national level is particularly recommended.

To translate the study findings into practice, both governmental and non-governmental organizations play crucial roles and should incorporate these insights into policy planning and development projects aimed at enhancing women`s nutritional status.

6. Limitations

The study explores new avenues of knowledge, but it also has its limitations. Firstly, it relies on cross-sectional data and uses the 24-hour recall method to estimate dietary diversity scores, which may not fully capture the dietary habits of the women accurately. Secondly, the dataset does not include comprehensive data on livestock outputs, such as milk, eggs, and meat consumption, which makes disaggregated analysis impossible. This represents a limitation of the study and could be addressed in future research. Additionally, assuming all women to be moderately active when estimating their calorie consumption might not reflect the diversity in activity levels among women. To improve future studies, it is recommended to consider employing time series analysis or longer recall periods (such as 7 or 15 days) to assess women`s dietary diversity. This approach, along with more precise calorie consumption estimations based on age and activity levels, could yield more robust outcomes. Unfortunately, the study was limited to using only cross-sectional data due to constraints, thus missing out on the longitudinal perspectives that panel data can provide.

In future research, exploring additional predictors beyond those examined in the current study would be beneficial. Different socio-economic contexts may uncover new factors influencing women`s nutritional security status. This expansion of predictors could enhance the comprehensiveness and applicability of future research findings.

Supporting information