Tel Hazor in the Iron Age

The borderlands of Israelite Hazor changed hands between Aram and Israel throughout the 10^th – 8^th BCE centuries. The border between these two states was most probably located around the Yarmouk River, but the Hula Valley, as the area of direct contact between Aram and Israel, was likely also a contentious borderland zone [12]; the upper Jordan Valley was likely part of the Israelite kingdom [10,13]. The Israelite city of Hazor, built as a fortified urban center in the 10^th century BCE, functioned both as a border fortification against the Aramean state and central settlement that supported extensive domestic quarters and some administrative buildings [14,15]. Conflict erupted between both kingdoms at the end of the 10^th century BCE (IRIIA), after Israel separated from Judea, when the Aramaeans attacked Israel on behalf of Judea (1 Kings, 15:18–20). Although it is unclear how long the Aramaean occupation over the Israelite territories lasted, the establishment of the Omride dynasty in 881 BCE consolidated power in the Israelite state. The Omrides held the highlands of Samaria, the lower and upper Galilee, and a small portion of the Transjordan Plateau through a network of newly constructed palatial architecture placed in various cities; these buildings served to bring together diverse groups while simultaneously broadcasting their own political authority [16].

The new political authority in ancient Israel established in 842 BCE quickly succumbed to Assyrian attackers in 841/840 BCE who also engaged the Aramaean kingdom. The cessation of military activity by the Assyrians around 836 BCE, who then focused their efforts on western campaigns, opened an opportunity for the re-opening of direct conflict by the Aramaeans against the Israelites. The Tel Dan stele, for example, indicates the Aramaean king Hazael conquered the entire northern Jordan Valley [10,13]. At some point during the 9^th century BCE, Hazor was transformed into a large administrative center, having doubled in size and domestic buildings replaced by public buildings, which included at least five large storage buildings and two granaries thought to have supplied both the city and residents beyond. Substantial investment in a subterranean water system also took place at this time, providing the city with the means to withstand a long-term siege [14,15,17]. The rapid growth of Hazor might indicate a demographic bulwark established by the Israelite kingdom along the Aramean border in response to heightened political unrest between the two entities or, alternatively, reflect a general increase in the population suggested by shifts in regional settlement patterns (see below, section 2.2.2). The subsequent devastation of the Aramean state by the Assyrians around 803/796 BCE led to a calm period for the Israelite state, as the Arameans were no longer able to exercise autonomous political power in the region [8].

Corresponding with the decline in conflict with the Aramean state, the built environment of Hazor underwent significant changes in the 8^th century BCE (IRIIB) when several of the public buildings, including all the granaries and storage buildings, went out of use and were replaced by new domestic buildings and workshops. Storage facilities were identified in some domestic buildings, indicating storage was no longer conducted in public buildings but instead performed within households. Such a change in storage mechanisms at Hazor may indicate a broader change in subsistence modes, probably agricultural activities, engaged by the local inhabitants of the city. Alternatively, this may reflect a shift in the acquisition and (re)distribution of food commodities that coincided with a change in local political structures, a process suggested by the dissolution of administrative buildings and their replacement by domestic buildings and workshops. These changes in architectural construction and use within Hazor were accompanied by considerable settlement shifts in its hinterland regions. The Upper Galilee, the northern Golan Heights and the northern part of the Hula Valley experienced a sharp decrease in the number of settlements during the transition from the 9^th century (IRIIA) to the 8^th century (IRIIB) BCE [18,19]. Settlement abandonment was particularly pronounced in the mountainous regions of the Galilee, which may have served as a buffer zone between the kingdom of Israel and the Phoenician coast [18]. In contrast, the southern part of the Hula Valley and the central and southern Golan Heights experienced a dramatic increase in settlement density, perhaps reflecting the growth of Hazor [19,20], now wealthier and stronger. More settlements sprung up around the city, hoping to take advantage of economic opportunities that created trade and wealth. It may also be that northern communities relocated from potentially volatile and contested terrains to the more politically stable area surrounding Hazor, which was still under Israelite control, and, by relocating to this area, they were able to seek protection from Hazor.

The shifting political relations between Aram and Israel certainly affected trade and economic relations between and within each kingdom, but the extent to which political conflict, engaged largely by the ruling elite and military circles, was projected onto the hinterland landscapes remains largely unknown. How the economic practices of domestic households, including agro-pastoralist herders who husbanded livestock for their own subsistence and profit, were affected is not documented, nor are shifts in extensive pasturing systems strategies most affected by borderland political dynamics. Hazor’s positioning in the contested landscapes proximal to the Hula Valley makes the settlement ideally suited to examine the permeability dynamics of the Israelite−Aramean border throughout the Iron Age, when political establishments were repeatedly reconfigured by indigenous and foreign influences.

Isotopic foundations for establishing ancient pasturing regimes

Where herders direct their livestock for pasturing depends on complex intersection of factors, including seasonally driven changes in pasture graze quality and abundance, location of pastoralist infrastructure such as water and shelter [21], pasture access rights [22], and directives from institutionalized authorities [23]. Multi-stable isotopic analyses of ancient animal skeletal tissues provide a robust means to trace livestock dietary change and mobility at high temporal and geospatial resolutions, information that further supplies new insights into the spatial dynamics of pastoral landscape use [24].

Carbon (δ¹³C) isotopes

The carbon isotope ratios of herbivore tooth bioapatite reflect those of ingested plants, providing a means to directly document seasonality in the carbon isotopic composition of local vegetation communities and thus enabling reconstruction of fodder provisioning and livestock pasturing practices associated with mobile herding regimes [25,26]. The carbon isotope ratios of plants are determined by photosynthetic pathway, aridity, and water availability [27]. C₃ and C₄ plants globally average −26‰ and −12‰ in δ¹³C, respectively [28]. C₃ plants are sensitive to water stress, closing their stomata under conditions of reduced water availability. This physiological response decreases photosynthesis, leading to a decrease in carbon fixation from CO₂, which in turn enriches leaf tissue growth approximately 2 − 5‰ in ¹³C [29,30]. The carbon isotopic composition of semi-arid environment floral growth shifts seasonally with warmer season growth enriched in ¹³C relative to cooler wet seasonal growth [31,32]. C₃ plants are also sensitive to arboreal cover density. The combination of decomposing leaf litter, recycling of atmospheric CO₂, and/or low light levels that slow photosynthesis rates creates a ‘canopy effect’ that can lower understory floral δ¹³C values up to 5‰ [33,34]. We apply a enamel bioapatite–diet isotope enrichment factor of 14.1 ± 0.5‰ to estimate dietary δ¹³C values for bovid livestock [35].

Oxygen (δ¹⁸O) isotopes

The geospatial distribution of environmental oxygen isotopes is broadly predictable across landscapes, thereby providing a means to examine animal mobility. The oxygen isotopic composition of precipitation is influenced by rainfall amount, temperature, and humidity [36,37]. In semi-arid environments, seasonal variation in temperature, precipitation levels, and aridity produces corresponding seasonal shifts in precipitation oxygen isotope values, with warmer season meteoric waters typically enriched in ¹⁸O due to higher temperatures, increased aridity, and reduced rainfall [36]. Precipitation δ¹⁸O values are also influenced by altitude with ¹⁸O-depleted meteoric waters falling on cooler, high elevation locations less impacted by evaporative fractionation [36]. Meteoric water δ¹⁸O values decrease approximately 0.3‰ per 100m increase in elevation [38,39].

Leaf water oxygen isotopes reflect in part the oxygen isotopic composition of meteoric waters [40,41], but are strongly influenced by soil water δ¹⁸O values, rooting depth, leaf structure, and evapotranspiration rates [42]. Evaporation at the ground-air interface results in ¹⁸O enrichment of upper layer soil waters relative to meteoric water [43]. Fractionation effects are minimal during transport of soil water via non-transpiring plant parts such as roots and stems [31,44]. Substantial ¹⁸O enrichment of plant water does occur, however, at evaporation sites in leaves [45,46], from which the ¹⁸O-enriched water diffuses throughout the leaf [42].

The δ¹⁸O values of herbivore tooth enamel carbonates are influenced by the oxygen isotopic composition of imbibed water which includes open water sources, groundwater, and leaf water [47,48]. Obligate drinkers, animals such as cattle that require substantial quantities of water on a daily basis, exhibit lower δ¹⁸O values than non-obligate or semi-obligate drinkers that meet their water needs from ¹⁸O-enriched leaf water [49]. Furthermore, herbivores ingesting a higher proportion of grass exhibit higher δ¹⁸O values compared to animals consuming higher amounts of browse [25]. Shallow-rooting grasses exhibit pronounced evaporative effects across the leaf surface [50] so that ingestion of ¹⁸O-enriched leaf water by sheep and goats would result in higher δ¹⁸O values compared to obligate drinking cattle.

Strontium isotopes

Strontium isotopes in biogenic tissues including enamel hydroxyapatite provide a robust means to evaluate animal mobility at local, regional, and transregional scales [51–53]. The distribution of bioavailable strontium in soils varies across a defined region, determined by the composition of local weathered bedrock as well as strontium delivered by aeolian dusts and rainfall [54,55]. Strontium isotope ratios (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) of different bedrock geologies are defined by substrate age and the original ratio of rubidium and strontium present in bedrock [54]. Strontium isotopes enter the foodweb primarily through plants which take up resident strontium present in soils without isotopic fractionation due to the heavy molecular weight of strontium isotopes [56]. Herbivores thus directly incorporate strontium isotopes derived from graze and, to a lesser extent, water [57]. Unlike bone, which in general does not retain in vivo strontium isotope ratios [58], the highly organized crystalline structure of tooth enamel is highly resistant to diagenetic alteration, providing authentic values associated with the period of enamel mineralization [59].

Southern Levantine environments in the Upper Jordan Valley

Hazor is situated in the Hula Basin (70 m a.s.l.), which constitutes the immediate hinterland and periphery of Hazor (Fig 2). Part of the Upper Jordan Valley (UJV), the Hula Valley covers 180km². To the west, the UJV is bounded by the Upper Galilee Mountains (1000 + m a.s.l.) composed of Cretaceous limestone and Neogene sedimentary rocks. To the east of the UJV lies the Golan Heights, reaching over 1000 m a.s.l and made up of successive layers of Pliocene and Pleistocene volcanic bedrock [60]. Basalts and pyroclast comprise the geology to the south/southeast of Hazor (north of Lake Kinneret). The distribution of bioavailable strontium in the soils of the Upper Jordan Valley, Golan Heights, and Galilee is determined by the composition of locally weathered bedrock and strontium from aeolian dusts, largely originating from the Sahara, as well as by precipitation moving bioavailable exchangeable strontium from marine deposits and sea spray [61,62].

Differences in bedrock geology, associated soil members, deposition of atmospheric strontium, and mean annual precipitation together produce spatial distinction in bioavailable strontium isotopes (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) in the hinterlands surrounding Hazor [63]. The Upper Galilee Mountains are dominated by terra rossa soils derived from the weathering of underlying Cretaceous limestones and dolomites, yielding ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of 0.70831 to 0.70883. Rendzina soils, comprised of calcareous soils developed from Cretaceous and Neogene chalks and marl, yield lower strontium isotopes ranging from approximately 0.70790 to 0.70840 [63]; rendzinas occur west and southwest of Hazor, developed over Eocene limestone bedrock (Fig 3). Golan basalts exhibit low strontium isotope values ranging from approximately 0.70448 to 0.70770, with the youngest flows dating to the late Pleistocene yielding the lowest values, and flows dating to the upper Pliocene exhibiting the highest values [63].

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Fig 3. Geological map of the Upper Jordan Valley and Lower Galilee [60].

Jurassic limestones = blue, Cretaceous dolomites and limestones = green, Eocene limestones = orange, Neogene conglomerates = yellow, Pliocene and Pleistocene cover basalts = red. Soil and rock ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios from ref [120]. Estimated ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios for Jurassic limestones associated with terra rossa soils (green box 1) (displayed in ref [109]). Bioavailable plant ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr isotope values are indicated for terra rossa soils (green box 1), rendzinas (blue box 2), and basalts (red box 3 – 6) (original data from ref [63] and also displayed in ref [109]). Dissolved strontium in Banias spring water derived from the Jurassic unit yields a ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio of 0.7072 [64].

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328934.g003

The Hula Valley is situated within the Lake Kinneret watershed (2570 km²), which includes the lower-elevation topographic drainage of the upper Jordan River that flows directly into Lake Kinneret, as well as an upper watershed defined by the karstic limestone mountain ridges of Mt. Hermon. There is a strong precipitation cline across the southern Levant along an east-west and north-south gradient. Strong orographic effects contribute to the precipitation gradient over the Lake Kinneret watershed, where rainfall amounts range from 400 mm/year for Lake Kinneret to 1200 mm/year for Mount Hermon [65,66]. Precipitation falls during the cooler seasons (November to April) with higher precipitation levels at higher elevations. Mean annual precipitation in the Hula Valley is 500–600 mm/year. Summers are hot and dry with annual temperatures averaging 27ºC in the Hula Valley and 21ºC for the Upper Galilee.

Hazor is situated within a seasonal C₃ Mediterranean phytogeographic zone, relatively close to other phytogeographic zones characterized by different vegetation communities. C₄ sedges growing around springs and ponds are also present in the Mediterranean environments of the UJV [67]. Higher precipitation levels in the Golan support C₃ growth depleted in ¹³C particularly during the wet season [32]. A drier Mediterranean facies that also supports some Irano-Turanian flora spreads south of Lake Kinneret and along the mid-elevation landscapes of the Rift Valley, while a more arid Saharo-Arabian zone, also containing some Irano-Turanian vegetation including ¹³C-enriched C₄ taxa, is distributed along lower elevations [68]. The very lowest elevations of the Rift Valley averaging −200 to −300 m b.s.l. receive less than 200 mm of rainfall per year, supporting Saharo-Sudanian and Sudan-Zambezian phytogeographic zones that contain a higher abundance of C₄ flora [69].

Zooarchaeological methods

Zooarchaeological analyses of faunal remains from Hazor provide a means to evaluate herd management strategies that may articulate with particular pasturing practices and Aramean-Israelite political dynamics. The faunal remains from Area M were recovered from accumulations of urban refuse representing time-averaged secondary discard associated with storage buildings, domestic structures, and also general fill contexts (Table 1). Not unexpectedly, no animal pens have so far been identified inside the built environment. Livestock may have belonged to Hazor households, kept outside the city and managed through kin-based or hired labor, or owned by pastoralists extrinsic to the urban community at Hazor. Regardless if livestock herds were husbanded by urban or rural components of Israelite society, successful caprine husbandry requires regular access by herds to sizeable pastures, and caprines consumed in the city would reflect the isotopic inputs related to pasturing regimes enacted on herds.

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Table 1. Contextual information for mandibular tooth specimens sampled for isotope analyses. O = Ovis aries, C = Capra hircus, OC = Ovis/Capra. ‘n’ indicates number of increments measured for each tooth. Mandibular wear stage determined following ref [76] and age at death estimated using ref [86]. Age cohorts: Age 1 (MWS A-C, 0–12 months; Age 2 = MWS D, 1–2 years; Age 3 = TWS E, 2–3 years; Age 4 = MWS F, 3–4 years; Age 5 = TWS G-I, 4–10 years).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328934.t001

Faunal remains were collected by hand during the excavation and were identified using the comparative collection of the Laboratory of Archaeozoology at the University of Haifa. Recovery by hand was complemented by extensive wet-sieve sampling, which yielded very few mammal bones that were taxonomically or otherwise informative, suggesting that hand recovery provides as good a sample of the faunal record for medium- and large-sized mammals (cf. ref [70]). Faunal remains are archived in the Israel Antiquities Authority while teeth analyzed for carbon and oxygen stable isotopes as part of this study are archived in the Archaeology Stable Isotope Laboratory (ASIL) at the University of Kiel. To estimate taxonomic and demographic variables of livestock use, we used a focused protocol that records a set of data-rich diagnostic zones [71], (see discussion in [72–74]). Epiphyseal fusion [75], tooth eruption and wear [76], and biometrical [77,78] data were collected when possible for all livestock taxa (S1 Table and S2 Table). To check the equivalence of taphonomic deposition scenarios between contexts, data on bone surface modification such as weathering, carnivore gnawing, butchery, and burning marks were noted when observed with the naked eye.

Statistical analyses were carried out in R (R Core Team 2018) and visualized using the ggplot2 package. The association plot was drawn using the “vcd” package v. 1.4–7 [79]. Least-square regression of cosine functions was conducted in Excel using a file published by Pieterse [80].

Selection of teeth and intra-tooth sampling for isotope analysis

Teeth do not remodel after mineralization, preserving a seasonal-scale record of dietary intake and environmental inputs. We selected third mandibular molars for our analyses because these specimens were the most well represented in the assemblage. For sheep and goats, formation of the third mandibular molar begins at approximately 9–10 months and is completed by 20–22 months [81,82]. Crown formation and enamel mineralization rates in goats and sheep appear to be broadly similar [83]. The third mandibular molar exhibits greater temporal variation in crown formation rates between individuals compared to the second mandibular molar, although the amplitude of seasonal isotopic change captured in the tooth crown is similar [84]. For cattle, the third mandibular molar begins formation at approximately 9–10 months in age and is completed by ca. 23–24 months [85]. Continuous wear of hypsodont bovid teeth erases some portion of seasonal isotopic inputs recorded in tooth enamel. Consequently, the amplitude of intra-tooth isotopic change visible in older animals is reduced due to elimination of seasonal peaks and troughs within the sequence (i.e., minimum and maximum isotope values). Mandibular wear stages used to assess relative animal age at death, described above, were used to estimate the extent of tooth structure loss of sampled specimens (Table 1).

All necessary permits were obtained for the described study, which complied with all relevant regulations. Archaeological tooth samples were exported to the Archaeology Stable Isotope Laboratory (ASIL) at the University of Kiel under permit number 14197 issued by the Israel Antiquities Authority. Third mandibular molars (M/3) from domesticated sheep (Ovis aries, n = 2), goats (Capra hircus, n = 3), sheep/goat (Ovis/Capra, n = 2), and cattle (Bos taurus, n =1) were selected from early Iron Age II (IRIIA) contexts dated to approximately the 10^th–9^th centuries BCE, a period of conflict between the Aramean and Israelite states. This chronological assignment is based on the stratigraphic context of the finds and ceramic typology of pottery sherds recovered from the same stratigraphic context as the faunal remains. M/3’s from five sheep/goat (n = 5, Ovis/Capra) one gazelle (n = 1, Gazella sp.), and one cattle (n = 1, B. taurus) were selected from the late Iron Age II (IRIIB) contexts dated on the basis of stratigraphy and ceramic topology to the 8^th century BCE, a period defined by a cessation of conflict between the two polities reflecting the devastation of the Aramean state following the Assyrian conquests. Third mandibular molars were identified as belonging to either sheep or goat based on morphological criteria established by ref [87].

Teeth were cleaned mechanically using a scalpel in order to remove both dental calculus and any adhering sediments. Teeth were then sonicated in distilled water to ensure full removal of contaminating particles and dried overnight at 60^oC. A sequence of horizontal bands approximately 1 mm in width were drilled perpendicular to the growth axis from the tooth crown (earliest forming) to the enamel root junction (ERJ; latest forming) on the buccal side of the anterior tooth loph using a diamond-tipped drill bit. Sampling the same tooth loph enhances comparability of isotopic time-series between individuals by reducing the impact of tooth geometry on the shape and amplitude of intra-tooth isotopic change [88–90]. Overall, the seasonality of intra-tooth isotopic change recorded in hypsodont teeth is attenuated relative to seasonal change in environmental isotopes due to incremental deposition of enamel matrix at daily scales, successive cross mineralization during subsequent enamel maturation over longer timescales, tooth geometry, and a sampling strategy that cross-cuts successive mineralization fronts. Amelogenesis progresses through multiple, discontinuous stages during which a primary matrix is laid down in successive cone-like structures, subsequently mineralizes, and matures over an extended period of time [91–94]. The extended process of enamel maturation involves the deposition of secondary mineralization fronts that run transverse to the long axis of enamel prisms, introducing time-averaging in the measured isotopic sequences [95–97]. An exponential decrease in tooth growth rates towards the crown-enamel junction further integrates isotopic inputs [97–99].

Enamel powders were soaked in approximately 1 mL of 0.1 M acetic acid for 4 hours to remove diagenetic carbonates [100,101], then rinsed with distilled water and centrifuged at 6000 rpm five times. Enamel powders were then freeze-dried. After treatment, samples were reacted with 100% orthophosphoric acid at 75ºC in an automated cryogenic distillation system (Kiel IV device) interfaced with a ThermoScientific MAT 253 mass spectrometer located in the Leibniz Laboratory for Radiometric Dating and Stable Isotope Research at the University of Kiel. Two international carbonate standards, NBS-19 and IAEA-603, were run daily. Analytical precision was 0.05‰ for carbon isotope ratios and 0.08‰ for oxygen isotope ratios. Three different internal enamel standards measured an analytical precision of 0.10‰ for oxygen isotope ratios and 0.15‰ for carbon isotope ratios (CM1_D; 48 measurements), 0.08‰ for oxygen isotope ratios and 0.14‰ for carbon isotope ratios (ER1_C; 8 measurements), and 0.07‰ for oxygen isotope ratios and 0.09‰ for carbon isotope ratios (ER1_D; 40 measurements). All isotopic values were reported relative to the V-PDB (Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite) standard using NBS-19.

Enamel samples for strontium isotope analyses were removed from portions of the tooth exhibiting high summer season maximum δ¹⁸O values and low winter season minimum δ¹⁸O values. For strontium isotope analysis, separation chemistry for enamel samples was performed in a class 100 clean lab facility located in the MC-ICP-MS facility in the Department of Geological Sciences, University of Cape Town (UCT). Samples were transferred to Savillex beakers digested in 2–3 mL of 65% HNO₃ at 140ºC. After complete dissolution, the samples were dried overnight at 130ºC and re-dissolved in 2 mL 2M HNO₃ and loaded into 800 μL Teflon columns containing pre-conditioned Eichrom Sr-spec pure resin (500 = 100 μm). After six washes with 2M HNO3, the Sr was eluted with 3 mL of ultrapure deionized water, dried, and re-dissolved to a volume of 0.2% HNO₃. ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr isotope analyses were performed using a Nu Instruments NuPlasma HR multi-collector ICP-MS instrument housed in the Department of Geological Sciences, University of Cape Town. ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr data presented were referenced to bracketing analyses of the international strontium isotope standard NIST SRM987 using a ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr normalizing value of 0.710255. Isobaric interference of ⁸⁷Rb on ⁸⁷Sr was corrected using the measured signal for ⁸⁵Rb and the natural ⁸⁵Rb/⁸⁷Rb ratio. The effect of instrumental mass fractionation was corrected using the exponential law and a ⁸⁶Sr/⁸⁸Sr value of 0.1194. All samples were run to an internal precision of ± 0.000037 (2SE) or better. Repeat analyses of an in-house carbonate reference material (NM95) analyzed as an unknown along with the enamel samples during processing of samples for this study yielded an ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr value of 0.708910 ± 0.000030 (n = 3) in agreement with long-term data for this material (0.708911 ± 0.000040 2s; n = 414; over >8 years). Total procedural strontium blanks were typically better than ~250 pg and therefore negligible.

Modelling birth seasonality

The position of maximum δ¹⁸O and δ¹³C values in the tooth crown relative to the ERJ provides information on the seasonality of birth and dietary intake, respectively. However, inter-individual variability in tooth size and geometry impacts the shape of isotopic curves and, in turn, influences the relative positioning of minimum and maximum isotope values in time series [102]. Here, we reduced the impact of inter-individual variation in tooth size to better fit isotopic time-series alignments by normalizing distances of sampled increments using an equation derived from a cosine function developed by ref [103]. Although the M/3 exhibits wider variation in growth rate than the M/2 [102,103], third mandibular molar-based calculations will also separate season of birth between individual animals [84,104]. Previous work comparing oxygen isotope curves modelled for M/2 and M/3 teeth from the same analytical cohort indicates temporal disparities in modelled birth seasonality, with the second molar demonstrating a shorter birthing period of only four months while the third molars demonstrate an extended birth season taking place over six months [84].

A least square regression was used to obtain best-fit values for parameters A, x₀, X, and M while the values of p, b, and x_B were fixed to 0 and x_A was fixed to 10⁶. This four-parameter model was found to be sufficient by ref [103] for modelling the majority of cases. The season of birth was determined by evaluating the position in the tooth crown where the highest (x_max = x₀) and lowest (x_min = x₀ + X/2) δ¹⁸O values were modelled relative to the period of the annual cycle (X). The birth seasonality of individuals 5756 and 5808 from the IRIIA and 5758, 5812, and 5817 from the IRIIB could not be determined due to shortness of isotopic sequence.

Retention of caprine management systems over time at Hazor

Shifts in geopolitical boundaries and border permeability, as well as subsistence and economic dynamics influence the spatial extent of pastoral systems and shape of herd management strategies that entail adjustment of livestock mobility and herd demography. Zooarchaeological results indicate similarity in faunal assemblages representing IRIIA and IRIIB occupation at Hazor. A total number of 737 specimens were identified to genus in the Iron Age II assemblage (Table 2). Sheep (Ovis aries) and goats (Capra hircus), evenly represented with a ratio close to 1:1 (Table 2, Fig 4; identifications based on ref. [105]), were heavily exploited in both periods, followed by cattle (Bos taurus) and equids. The latter included both donkey (Equus asinus) and horse (E. caballus), clearly distinguishable by size (Late IRIIA, 9^th century: 13 horse, 14 donkey; IRIIB, 8^th century: 13 horse, 16 donkey, see Table 2). Deer (Dama mesopotamica) and gazelle (Gazella cf. gazella) were occasionally hunted. Tooth wear data from sheep/goat specimens indicate focused harvesting of mature adults approximately 4 years in age. Some slaughter of yearlings was also undertaken during the early IRIIA (10^th century BCE; Table 1, Fig 5). The predominance of skeletal remains from mature adults is typical of a livestock producer economy and contrasts with an abundance of older juveniles and young adults expected for consumer settlements (e.g., ref [106]). Overall, strong similarity in sheep-to-goat ratio and age-at-death calculated for IRIIA and IRIIB occupation suggests no major change in caprine production goals for subsistence or otherwise between the 10^th and the 8^th centuries BCE.

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Table 2. Relative frequencies of taxa from Iron Age II Hazor (Area M). Number of Identified Specimens (NISP) values are based on diagnostic zone counts according to ref. [71]. Early IRIIA (10^th century BCE), Late IRIIA (9^th century BCE), IRIIB (8^th century BCE).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328934.t002

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Fig 4. Chi-square standardized residuals of taxa by period.

Dark purple = significant under representation, dark blue = significant overrepresentation. Total chi-square = 43.97, P < 0.001.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328934.g004

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Fig 5. Age-at-death distributions for caprines for Iron Age II Hazor analyzed as part of this study based on ref [86] (computed according to mandibular wear stages defined by ref [76]).

Age cohorts: Age 1 (MWS A-C, 0–12 months; Age 2 = MWS D, 1–2 years; Age 3 = TWS E, 2–3 years; Age 4 = MWS F, 3–4 years; Age 5 = TWS G-I, 4–10 years).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328934.g005

However, a decline in the frequency of caprines from 81% to 53% from the early IRIIA to the IRIIB, accompanied by a concomitant, dramatic increase in the frequency of cattle and equids, rising from 16% in the IRIIA to 35% in IRIIB, suggests an intensification in agriculture, an activity which involved a larger number of traction animals, over large-scale pastoral production (see Table 1 and Fig 4). Notably, this corresponds with a decrease in tree cover between 9^th–8^th centuries BCE associated with land clearance, possibly for increased agricultural output [107]. A shift in economic strategies linked to food production is also reflected in the architectural changes of the city with large, public storage buildings falling out of use during the IRIIB, replaced by silos placed in households. Despite changes in the type of animal and agricultural production, similarity in caprine management systems with the exploitation of goats and sheep more or less similar across the Iron Age II suggests that caprine mobility patterns were not dictated by household subsistence or economic goals but by landscape accessibility, as defined by polities and borders.

Caprine birth seasonality

Establishing the timing and distribution of animal season of birth is an important husbandry strategy that helps herders coordinate the production of milk and meat throughout the year. Birth seasonality in sheep and goats can be established through analysis of the positioning of summer-season maximum and winter-season minimum oxygen isotope values expressed in mandibular molars [102]. The locations of minima and maxima δ¹⁸O values relative to the enamel-root junction (ERJ) are presented in Table 3 and, based on those data, the modelled season of birth is presented in Fig 6 for Late IRIIA and IRIIB animals. For each case, the fit of the model was tested using an ANOVA; all p-values were below 0.05. Model results indicate moderate variation in caprine birth seasonality. An offset of ¼ of a full period (X) is visible between late IRIIA (n = 5) and IRIIB (n = 3) x_max and x_min values. When normalized to the period of the cycle, the position of maximum δ¹⁸O values indicates extended birth seasonality at Tel Hazor, stretching over ca 5–6 months (IRIIA: 0.54 year; IRIIB: 0.42 year; Fig 5), and that this period shifted by approximately 3 months (0.24 year) between the earlier and later Iron II occupations.

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Table 3. Best fit (least-squares regression) and cosine function for A (amplitude), x₀ (position of δ¹⁸O_max value in tooth crown), X (period of cycle), M (mean), x_min = position of lowest δ¹⁸O value in tooth crown; p-value refers to ANOVA test on the least-square regression. O = Ovis aries, C = Capra hircus, OC = Ovis/Capra. Absent specimens are those that did not yield clear seasonal minimum or maximum oxygen isotope values required for calculations.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328934.t003

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Fig 6.  Relative positions of maxima δ¹⁸O values measured in intra-tooth oxygen isotope sequences of caprine third molars, normalized to the period of the yearly cycle [period (X₀/X)], as determined using the modelling procedure according to ref [103].

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328934.g006

Asynchronicity in modelled sequences likely reflects a combination of loosely staggered birth seasonality and also inter-tooth differences in third mandibular molar tooth formation rates which are more variable than the second mandibular molar more commonly used to establish birth seasonality [84]. Short lambing periods are associated with transhumant herd movement for the production of wool and meat, while extended birth seasons are associated with closely pastured animals for meat and milk. The extended birth season seen at Hazor fits well with production strategies oriented toward milk production for household consumption along with staggered meat production for markets. Extended birth seasonality observed in both the IRIIA IRIIB period could also reflect ad hoc provisioning of Hazor with live animals or meat obtained from multiple herding households employing distinct caprine husbandry strategies for different production goals. Alternatively, the intensification of agricultural activities (suggested by the increased importance of cattle) necessitated an extended season of birth in order to reduce convergence of labor-intensive plowing of fields and planting new crops with equally labor-intensive lambing.

Oxygen (δ¹⁸O) and carbon (δ¹³C) isotope results

The oxygen isotopic composition of the Hazor caprines reflects not only seasonal variation in geospatially sensitive meteoric water δ¹⁸O values, but also animal drinking and feeding behaviors that partially overwrite meteoric water oxygen isotope inputs [108]. Bovid livestock from Hazor exhibit moderate seasonal variation in oxygen isotopes expressed in sequentially sampled molars. Mean δ¹⁸O values yielded by each tooth specimen range from −3.4 to 2.6‰. Caprines from the IRIIA level range from −5.4 to 1.5‰ in δ¹⁸O while caprines from the IRIIB levels range from −4.8 to 3.7‰ (Table 4; S3 Table). Caprines exhibited moderate intra-tooth oxygen isotopic change (Δ¹⁸O) ranging from 2.7 to 5.0‰ in the IRIIA (Figs 7 and 8) and 2.4 to 6.1‰ in the IRIIB (Fig 9) and, in general, exhibited sinusoidal variation reflecting seasonal shifts in the oxygen isotope ratios of imbibed water. Cattle display low-amplitude intra-tooth oxygen isotope change, likely reflecting the intake by obligate drinking cattle of groundwater water from wells or springs, sources that yield an integrated isotopic signal derived from paleowaters, seasonal recharge events, recharge from different regional and local aquifers, or open water consistently affected by evaporative processes. The single IRIIA Bos specimen exhibits δ¹⁸O values ranging from −3.6 to −2.0‰, while the IRIIB Bos specimen exhibited a somewhat lower amplitude of oxygen isotopic change ranging from −3.6 to −2.9‰. The single gazelle specimen exhibited the highest intra-tooth δ¹⁸O values ranging from −1.8 to 3.7‰.

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Table 4. Summary statistics for carbon (δ¹³C), oxygen (δ¹⁸O), and strontium (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) isotope values measured from sequentially sampled third mandibular molars from cattle (Bos cf. taurus), goat (C, Capra hircus), sheep (O, Ovis aries), sheep/goat (OC), and gazelle (Gazella sp.). ‘n’ indicates number of increments measured for each tooth, ∆ = indicates range of intra-tooth isotopic change (i.e., difference between minimum and maximum isotope values), asterisk (*) indicates specimens exhibiting a full seasonal cycle in oxygen isotope sequences. Strontium isotope values coincide with maximum and minimum δ¹⁸O values expressed within each tooth.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328934.t004

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Fig 7. Intra-tooth oxygen (δ¹⁸O) and carbon (δ¹³C) isotope sequences measured from a single sheep (Ovis aries) tooth recovered from the Early IRIIA period deposits.

Carbon isotope (δ¹³C) values = blue, oxygen isotope (δ¹⁸O) values = yellow.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328934.g007

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Fig 8. Intra-tooth oxygen (δ¹⁸O) and carbon (δ¹³C) isotope sequences measured for bovid taxa recovered from Late IRIIA period deposits.

Squares = Bos sp., circles = Capra/Ovis (see Table 1 for detailed taxonomic assignments for caprines). Carbon isotope (δ¹³C) values = blue, oxygen isotope (δ¹⁸O) values = yellow.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328934.g008

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Fig 9. Intra-tooth oxygen (δ¹⁸O) and carbon (δ¹³C) isotope sequence measured from a single sheep (Ovis aries) tooth recovered from early IRIIB period deposits.

Squares = Bos sp., circles = Capra/Ovis, diamonds = Gazella sp. (see Table 1 for detailed taxonomic assignments for caprines). Carbon isotope (δ¹³C) values = blue, oxygen isotope (δ¹⁸O) values = yellow.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328934.g009

Caprines from Hazor yield a wide range of intra-tooth δ¹³C values from −12.2‰ to −10.6‰ observed in the single early IRIIA specimen, −12.3‰ to −5.0‰ for late IRIIA animals, and −13.6‰ to −6.9‰ for IRIIB animals (Fig 10). Caprines from both periods exhibited similarly wide variation in intra-tooth carbon isotopic change (Δ¹³C) ranging from +1.2‰ to 4.6‰ in the IRIIA (Table 4, Figs 7 and 8) and +1.0‰ to 4.5‰ in the IRIIB (Fig 9); carbon isotope sequences exhibit sinusoidal variation reflecting seasonal changes in dietary intake. The single Bos specimen from the late IRIIA level at Hazor exhibits moderate intra-tooth carbon isotopic variation ranging from −11.8 to −9.0‰ while the Bos specimen from the IRIIB level shows higher δ¹³C values from −7.3 to −4.5‰. Furthermore, intra-tooth carbon and oxygen isotopic variation exhibits consistent seasonal patterning between individuals. In general, seasonal shifts in intra-tooth carbon isotope change are inversely related to changes in oxygen isotopic composition, such that low wet-season δ¹⁸O values coincide with high δ¹³C values, while high summer season δ¹⁸O values correspond with low δ¹³C values (Figs 7−9). Other sequences instead exhibit high δ¹³C values associated with mid-range δ¹⁸O values likely representative of a spring season enamel formation (e.g., 5752), whereas another set of sequences show  low δ¹³C values corresponding to mid-range δ¹⁸O values expressed after summer maxima oxygen isotope values consistent with an autumn season formation period (e.g., 5805).

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Fig 10. Range of intra-tooth δ¹³C values for Hazor caprines (boxes without labels), cattle (B), and gazelle (G).

The periods are marked by color: light blue = Early IRIIA, blue = Late IRIIA, dark blue = IRIIB.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328934.g010

Strontium isotope results

The range of variation of strontium isotope values.

The strontium isotopic composition of caprine livestock from both the IRIIA and IRIIB indicates these animals were pastured on basalt geologies (Table 4, Fig 11). A high proportion of strontium isotope ratios measured for animals from both periods ranged from approximately 0.7075 to 0.7079, values associated with Pliocene Dalton basalts, Dalwe basalts and cover basalts that cover the western and southeastern Golan, politically associated with Aram during the Iron Age II (Figs 2 and 3). Two IRIIA animals, one sheep (5752) and one cattle (5750) exhibited the very low strontium isotope ratios typically associated Pliocene basalts distributed to the east of the northern Hula Valley (Fig 3). Only one IRIIB cattle individual (5754; yielding radiogenic Sr values of 0.70844 and 0.70850) was grazed on terra rossa soils associated with Cretaceous limestones that covered the Lower Galilee region west and northwest of Hazor including the western edge of the Hula Valley, and also Jurassic limestones to the north-northeast. IRIIA and IRIIB bovids exhibited both low intra-tooth shifts in strontium isotope ratios suggestive of small-scale seasonal moves as well as wide intra-tooth differences in ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr indicating larger scale movement to different pastures (Fig 11).

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Fig 11. Strontium isotope values for Hazor caprines, cattle, and gazelle.

Open circles coincide with δ¹⁸O_max values and black circles coincide with δ¹⁸O_min values. ‘B’ indicates cattle (Bos cf. taurus) and ‘G’ indicates gazelle (Gazella cf. gazella); all other values represent caprines. Colored horizontal bands and vertical bars indicate range of bioavailable strontium isotope values based on mean ± 1σ according to ref [63]. Horizontal blue dashed lines indicate the full range of ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values expected for rendzinas from refs [63,109].

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328934.g011

Caprine pasturing systems unaffected by Iron Age conflicts

Multi-isotope data together suggest that bovid livestock grazed on spatially distinct pastures local to Hazor, within the Upper Jordan Valley, and also on more distant pastures located in the adjacent Golan Heights, an area that included contested landscapes held by Aram. Notably, there is no evidence that livestock pastured on rendzina soils located immediately north of Hazor or to the west in the Lower Galilee nor grazed on pastures supported by the radiogenic terra rossa soils that characterize the much of the Lower Galilee, the western portion of the UJV, or Mt. Hermon except for a single IRIIB cattle specimen (Fig 11). This individual (5754) exhibited the most radiogenic ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio (mean = 0.70846) of all sampled individuals from Hazor as well the highest dietary δ¹³C values (range = −21.9 to −19.0‰), indicating the animal regularly ingested water-stressed C₃ plants and probably some C₄ graze. This strontium value is expected for animals ingesting forage growing on terra rossa soils present along the western flanks of the Jordan Valley [63], which also supports ¹³C-enriched C₄ sedges growing near springs and flowing water [32].

Instead, Hazor pasturing systems were oriented eastward during both the IRIIA and IRIIB, focused on the volcanic landscapes of the Golan Heights where well-watered pastures would have supplied herds with an abundant food supply. Pasture systems also included grazing grounds located to the south of Hazor in the rolling hills that surround the northern end of Lake Kinneret. Bioavailable ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios across these volcanic landscapes vary according to age with isotopic separation visible between plants growing on Pliocene, early Pleistocene, and late Pleistocene volcanic layers comprised of basalts and pyroclasts; this difference is driven largely by an increased contribution of atmospheric (strontium) deposition in soils that formed on old bedrock relative to younger bedrock [32].

The southern reaches of the UJV and much of the Golan Heights are comprised of Pliocene cover basalts (Pβc, 0.7074–0.7079) and Late Pliocene basalt flows (Dalwe basalts, 0.7077) (Fig 3; Dalwe values from ref. [109]). Both IRIIA (5756, 5757, and 5808) and IRIIB (5758, 5801, 5813, and 5817) caprines yielded strontium isotopes values, indicating animals were pastured in the Golan or to the south of Hazor where cover basalts are also present. Taking advantage of the pronounced elevation and precipitation gradients across the UJV and Golan, pasturing in either of these regions can be more finely resolved based on the oxygen isotope ratios recorded in discrete portions of the tooth enamel structure. The oxygen isotopic composition of meteoric precipitation and groundwater is influenced by altitude [110]. In the UJV and Golan region, there is a −0.26‰ decrease in meteoric water δ¹⁸O values per 100 m increase in elevation [111], similar to the global gradient of −0.28‰/100 m [38]. The precipitation ‘amount effect’ further modifies meteoric water oxygen isotope values with a decrease in precipitation levels corresponding with increasing meteoric water δ¹⁸O values [37]. Tel Hazor annually receives ca 450 mm of precipitation while the Golan Heights receives from 500 to 800 + mm per year.

We expect winter wet season δ¹⁸O_min values visible in intra-tooth sequences measured from archaeological caprines to more closely reflect the oxygen isotopic composition of open or groundwater sources which more closely reflect meteoric water oxygen isotope ratios, particularly under cooler, more humid conditions such as the wet season when evaporative enrichment is slowed. Furthermore, the isotopic composition of groundwater in the Cenomanian-Turanian limestone aquifer in northern Israel reflects meteoric water values in recharge areas [110]. Either one of these water sources would direct the oxygen isotopic composition of caprine body water during the wet season, in contrast to the later spring and summer seasons when ¹⁸O-enriched leaf water would also heavily influence bioapatite δ¹⁸O values of these semi-obligate drinkers [25,49]. Leaf water δ¹⁸O values are strongly influenced by evapotranspiration and air relative humidity [112]; these isotope values shift seasonally with leaf water present in foliar growth pushed out under cooler, more humid conditions during the wet season conditions more similar to meteoric water oxygen isotopes (i.e., depleted in ¹⁸O) compared to leaf water in later foliar growth enriched in ¹⁸O under more arid and warmer evaporative conditions [31,112].

Obligate-drinking cattle from Hazor, exhibiting an intra-tooth range from −3.6 to −2.0‰ in δ¹⁸O values, provide a rough estimate of seasonality in the oxygen isotope composition of groundwater and/or open water sources in the Upper Jordan Valley. However, the use of cattle δ¹⁸O values for the purposes of establishing an isotope reference data for local meteoric waters in the UJV is further complicated by the integrated contribution of precipitation with varied isotope compositions, imparted by amount and altitude effects that influence meteoric water δ¹⁸O values [104]. Variation in the oxygen isotopic composition of groundwater and open water sources within the Kinneret watershed adds further complexity [110]. In the case of Hazor, cattle δ¹⁸O values possibly reflect such an integrated signal at a sub-regional scale (i.e., Hula Valley) and may be more useful for establishing larger-scale inter-regional mobility or animal exchange within the diverse precipitation regimes of the southern Levant.

Livestock grazing on more radiogenic basalts associated with Pliocene cover basalts and Dalwe flow are significantly enriched +2.3‰ in δ¹⁸O (wet season minima values) relative to individuals foraging on less radiogenic Pliocene basalts (with the exception of individual 5758 feeding on more radiogenic basalts but yielding a low δ¹⁸O_min value; Fig 12; t-test p = 0.0185). This suggests that pastures supported by soils derived from cover basalts and Dalwe flow received ¹⁸O-enriched precipitation and, thus, likely located at lower elevations near Hazor. Individuals foraging on less radiogenic Pliocene basalts all exhibited low δ¹⁸O_min values consistent with grazing at higher elevations in the Golan. Individual 5758 likely also grazed at higher elevations in the Golan, albeit on pastures that supported more radiogenic soils.

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Fig 12. Intra-tooth δ¹⁸O_min values and paired strontium isotope values for Hazor caprines, cattle (B), and gazelle (G).

Diamonds indicate IRIIA isotope values, circles indicate IRIIB isotope values. Convex hulls (dashed black lines) delineate livestock groups sharing a similar oxygen isotopic composition.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328934.g012

δ¹⁸O_max values measured from tooth enamel appear to be less useful for establishing summer season mobility movement in semi-obligate drinking caprines in the absence of a large cohort of oxygen isotope data from contemporaneous non-obligate drinkers, such as gazelle, which would establish the upper limit of environmentally derived δ¹⁸O values from leaf water for a given locale [113]. Moderate oxygen isotopic enrichment of caprines relative to cattle, in particular summer season δ¹⁸O_max values (Table 4), confirms the steady contribution of an ¹⁸O-enriched water source to caprine body water, likely leaf water. The ingestion by caprines of evaporatively ¹⁸O-enriched leaf water, particularly during the warmer months, disrupts the geospatial relationship between meteoric water (and also groundwater) and oxygen isotope ratios recorded in tooth bioapatite. Consequently, the oxygen isotope ratios of obligate-drinking cattle and non-obligate drinking gazelle can be used to further constrain the geospatial origins of semi-obligate drinking caprines. For example, if the oxygen isotope ratios of caprines exhibiting strontium isotopes values associated with Upper Pleistocene basalts were higher than those yielded by the single gazelle from Hazor yielding an intra-tooth range of −1.8 to 3.7‰ in δ¹⁸O (and also yielding a strontium isotope value associated with Upper Pliocene basalts), it would be likely that the caprine came from a more arid region.

Altogether, intra-individual variation in δ¹⁸O_min values observed within each group of Hazor animals, distinguished by their strontium isotope ratios, is due to a complex intersection of environmental inputs, physiological effects, and dietary factors that modify the oxygen isotopic composition of body water. These include the isotopic composition of meteoric water and groundwater, seasonality in aridity levels, and foraging behaviour. Herbivores foraging on a higher proportion of graze exhibit higher δ¹⁸O values compared to browsers feeding in the same environment [25]. Shallow-rooting grasses exhibit pronounced evaporative ¹⁸O enrichment across the leaf surface [42], while deeper-rooted browse draws from ¹⁸O-depleted moisture in soils [114]. Consequently, differences in the relative contribution of C₃ graze versus C₃ browse to the caprine diet may drive variation in maxima δ¹⁸O values observed in Hazor caprines independent of animal mobility. Further complicating matters, animals foraging on well-watered green pastures, in particular new growth high in water content, obtain a larger proportion of their water from leaf water and compensate by reducing their intake from open water sources [115].

Diversity in pasturing regimes confirmed by carbon isotopes

Hazor caprines grazed on open C₃ Mediterranean pastures, indicated by moderately low dietary δ¹³C values exhibited by most IRIIA and IRIIB caprines, ranging from ca −26 to −21‰. The single gazelle (5817) foraged under a light Mediterranean forest canopy indicated by consistently low intra-tooth dietary δ¹³C values averaging −27.6‰ (Fig 10). Understory foliar growth under a forest canopy is depleted in ¹³C compared to flora growing in open landscapes due to recycling of ¹³C-depleted CO₂ produced by decaying leaf litter [33,116], soil efflux [117], decreased photosynthesis rates [118], and low stomatal conductance under low light conditions [119].

Wide variation in caprine δ¹³C values, combined with differences in intra-tooth carbon isotopic patterning shared between IRIIA and IRIIB caprines, further confirms considerable spatial diversity in pasturing strategies (Fig 10). Low dietary δ¹³C_min values, ranging from −27.8 to −23.5‰ in both IRIIA and IRIIB caprines and coinciding with seasonal high δ¹⁸O_max values, indicate that these animals foraged during the spring and possibly early summer on well-watered C₃ pastures. Seasonal transhumance from Hazor to higher elevation pastures located in the Golan Heights, a region that receives higher amounts of precipitation than the lower elevation Hula Valley due to orographic effects, would explain this isotopic pattern. Similarly low dietary δ¹³C values coinciding with high summer season δ¹⁸O values have been identified in Neolithic caprines east of the Jordan Valley; in this case, the pattern reflects seasonal vertical transhumance of animals to higher elevation, better watered C₃ pastures in the Jordanian highlands [113]. At Hazor, winter season δ¹³C values were approximately 1–2.5‰ higher than summer season values, indicating ingestion of ¹³C-enriched fodder, a source that included later warm season C₃ growth that grew under water-stressed conditions, perhaps collected from reserved pasture as agricultural by-products (i.e., straw or direct grazing on crop-stubble). Variation in the intensity and duration of fodder provided to Hazor sheep and goats, expressed as inter-individual differences in absolute δ¹³C values and shape of the carbon isotope sequences, most likely reflects differences in household access to fallow fields, winter pastures, and fodder storage capabilities.

Livestock were almost never grazed on drier, ¹³C-enriched pastures located in more water-deficient regions. Seasonal high dietary δ¹³C_max values of −19.0‰ and higher observed in one Bos (5754, IRIIB) and one caprine (5756, late IRIIA) indicate these animals ingested water-stressed graze or C₄ sedges. Such pasturage was available in the Jordan Valley where ¹³C-enriched C₃/C₄ Irano-Turanian vegetation thrives. The pattern of high δ¹³C values coinciding with winter season minimum δ¹⁸O values suggests that these animals were moved during the winter months to extra-local pastures located in more arid environments and provided there with dried ¹³C-enriched graze in winter pastures or as fodder.

Overall, high δ¹³C values coinciding with δ¹⁸O_min values in Hazor caprines suggest that livestock were provisioned with a ¹³C-enriched fodder source, probably water-stressed graze collected during the summer months, during the coldest portion of the wet season (see further discussion below), while pronounced variation in caprine summer and winter season δ¹³C values, as well as inter-individual differences observed in their relationship with oxygen isotope minima and maxima values, indicates substantial diversity in pasturing and foddering strategies. These patterns suggest that the movement and provisioning of caprine herds were managed at the household level, rather than coordinated by a centralized authority, which would be expected to produce more homogenous isotopic patterning.