2.2.1. The Stimuli (S).

In the SOR model, the “stimulus” refers to external factors that initiate cognitive and affective processes in consumers [19]. Within the realm of visual eWOM, these stimuli are characterized by information quality, quantity, and credibility. High-quality information is notably influential, as it is perceived as more trustworthy and persuasive, thereby significantly shaping consumer attitudes and behaviors [36]. Accurate and relevant eWOM enhances its credibility, thereby affecting consumers’ perceptions of the product or service being reviewed [37]. Comprehensive eWOM, which provides detailed and thorough information can reduce consumer uncertainty and perceived risk, leading to more favorable product evaluations [38]. High-quality content also promotes deeper cognitive processing and emotional engagement, enhancing consumer satisfaction and the likelihood of information adoption [39].

While an abundance of information can sometimes lead to overload, it often enhances perceived credibility by reflecting widespread acceptance and social validation of the product [40]. A large volume of eWOM provides diverse perspectives and reduces uncertainty, thereby aiding in more informed decision-making [38]. Moreover, information credibility, which includes the perceived trustworthiness and expertise of the source, plays a critical role in the persuasive impact of eWOM [41]. Credible eWOM increases consumer trust and positively influences attitudes and behaviors [42]. Expertise and the ability to verify the source’s authenticity further enhance credibility, facilitating deeper cognitive processing and fostering long-term changes in consumer attitudes and behaviors [43].

2.2.2. The Organism (O).

The “Organism” (O) component in the SOR model involves the internal processing that transforms external stimuli into behavioral outcomes [19]. In the context of visual eWOM, this internal processing includes key constructs such as information usefulness, information adoption, and attitude toward information. Information usefulness assesses how consumers perceive eWOM as beneficial for enhancing their knowledge and aiding decision-making [32]. The perceived usefulness of visual eWOM is influenced by its quality, relevance, and comprehensiveness; high-quality eWOM significantly enhances decision-making effectiveness [44]. When consumers perceive eWOM as useful, it positively affects their cognitive evaluation and increases the likelihood of adopting and integrating this information into their decision-making processes [38].

Information adoption refers to the process by which consumers recognize, evaluate, and incorporate eWOM into their choices [45], which can significantly impact consumer behavior, leading to increased purchase intentions and a greater tendency to share eWOM [46]. Attitude toward information encompasses judgments about the relevance, trustworthiness, clarity, and emotional resonance of eWOM. A positive attitude toward eWOM enhances its perceived usefulness, leading to greater engagement and higher rates of adoption [47]. Consumers with a favorable attitude are more likely to integrate eWOM into their decision-making, leading to stronger purchase intentions and higher conversion rates [41]. A positive attitude also fosters trust and reduces skepticism, amplifying the credibility and impact of eWOM. Thus, understanding these factors of information usefulness, information adoption, and attitude toward information provides valuable insights into how visual eWOM influences consumer behavior within the SOR framework.

2.2.3. The Response (R).

In the SOR model, the “response” (R) represents the final behavioral outcomes resulting from the organism’s internal processes. This response reflects an individual’s actions or reactions to the stimuli, shaped by their internal states [19]. In the context of eWOM, responses often manifest as consumer behaviors influenced by visual and informational stimuli. Purchase intention is a key response, where consumers form decisions to purchase a product or service based on the visual content they encounter. Vivid and interactive visual content has been shown to capture consumer attention and elicit positive emotions, thereby increasing their willingness to make a purchase [48]. High-quality images contribute to a sense of realism and reliability, fostering consumer trust and elevating the perceived credibility of the information [49].

Recent studies underscore the significance of visual cues in determining the usefulness of a message and influencing the behavioral intentions of readers [50]. Visual elements shape purchase intentions by enhancing the perceived value and reliability of eWOM content. Additionally, eWOM adoption can be driven by affective and curiosity perspectives, suggesting that beyond credibility, affective stimuli such as appealing visuals can propel consumers toward adopting eWOM and forming purchase intentions [39]. These affective reactions, influenced by visual eWOM, are crucial in shaping consumer behavior and motivating purchase decisions.

2.3.1. Visual eWOM’s information quality impact on information usefulness, information adoption, attitude toward information.

The quality of information (INL) in visual electronic word of mouth (eWOM) is a critical determinant of its impact on consumer behavior. High-quality information, characterized by accuracy, relevance, comprehensiveness, and clarity, significantly enhances consumer trust, perceived usefulness, and purchase intentions [51]. Relevant visual content enables users to efficiently locate necessary information, thereby enhancing its utility for decision-making processes [38]. In a fast-paced digital environment, the recency of information significantly impacts its relevance and usefulness [52]. For instance, in industries such as fashion or technology, trends, and product features evolve rapidly, and having the latest visual content allows consumers to stay informed about the most recent developments. This timeliness ensures that the information users rely on is not outdated, thereby maintaining its applicability and enhancing its value in the decision-making process [53].

Clear visual content minimizes cognitive load, allowing users to quickly grasp the information without expending excessive mental effort [54]. This ease of understanding enhances the user experience and increases the likelihood of information being perceived as useful and credible. In the context of eWOM, this might involve detailed product images from multiple angles, step-by-step instructional videos, or infographics that summarize extensive data into digestible formats [55]. Comprehensive visual content ensures that consumers have access to all necessary information, reducing the risk of making uninformed or misinformed decisions. Xu [56] found that well-researched and objective information, especially when supported by high-quality visuals, boosts the perceived reliability of eWOM messages. When consumers trust the accuracy of information, they are more inclined to find it useful for making informed purchase decisions [57]. According to Nilashi et al. [58], high-quality information in visual eWOM should address user needs and interests. This focus on user needs ensures the information is directly applicable to consumers’ decision-making processes, thereby increasing its perceived usefulness [59]. Therefore, the following hypothesis is formulated:

H1 Visual eWOM’s information quality has a positive impact on information usefulness.

In visual eWOM, high-quality visual information serves as a persuasive force, encouraging consumers to trust, utilize, and integrate the presented information into their decision-making processes [60]. The quality of visual eWOM significantly impacts cognitive and emotional evaluations, which in turn lead to positive behavioral responses, such as increased information adoption and higher purchase intentions [61]. High-quality visual eWOM enhances perceived credibility by presenting information in a polished and professional manner, fostering greater trust among users [62]. Visually appealing eWOM can engage users more effectively, evoking positive emotional responses that further increase the likelihood of information adoption [63]. The aesthetic appeal of well-designed visuals not only captures attention but also makes the information more memorable. This memorability is crucial, as it facilitates better recall of key details and benefits of the products or services discussed in the eWOM [64]. The ability to recall information easily due to its visual appeal and clarity enhances the chances of integrating it into the decision-making process. Moreover, consumers often perceive higher value in well-designed visual eWOM, which is influenced by the quality and relevance of the information as well as its overall presentation. This perception of value and trustworthiness encourages consumers to adopt the information and use it as a foundation for their decisions [65]. Consequently, the following hypothesis is formulated:

H2 Visual eWOM’s information quality has a positive impact on information adoption.

The SOR theory suggests that high-quality visual eWOM, as a stimulus, enhances cognitive and emotional evaluations, leading to positive behavioral responses such as increased information adoption and higher purchase intentions [19]. High-quality visual eWOM also plays a crucial role in shaping users’ attitudes. The use of effective design elements, such as clear imagery, well-organized layouts, and legible typography, enhances the clarity and comprehensibility of the information [62]. When information is presented in a clear and easily digestible manner, it reduces cognitive load, making it easier for consumers to understand and process the content. This ease of comprehension leads to a more positive attitude toward the information, as users find it more useful and engaging [42]. Additionally, visually appealing eWOM can evoke positive emotional responses, such as enjoyment or satisfaction, further enhancing the likelihood of a favorable attitude. These positive emotions make the information more memorable and enjoyable, increasing the chances of consumers adopting the information and acting upon it [63]. Therefore, high-quality visual eWOM positively influences users’ attitudes by enhancing perceived credibility, fostering trust, and evoking positive emotional responses. This improved attitude increases the likelihood of information adoption and subsequent behavioral responses, such as purchasing decisions. Thus, the following hypothesis is established:

H3 Visual eWOM’s information quality has a positive impact on attitude towards information.

2.3.2. Visual eWOM’s information quantity impact on information usefulness, information adoption, attitude toward information.

In the context of visual eWOM, the concept of information quantity (INT) encompasses the volume of content, including comments, reviews, and video footage, shared by consumers about products or services on digital platforms [17]. A greater quantity of information can enhance its perceived usefulness by providing a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of a topic [66]. For instance, eWOM, rich in visual content, such as multiple images and videos, is often perceived by consumers as more informative and helpful in decision-making processes [67]. When consumers are exposed to a large volume of information, they can access diverse perspectives and contexts, allowing for a thorough exploration of the subject, reducing uncertainty, and increasing confidence in the information’s accuracy [68].

The abundance of available information enhances users’ comprehension by enabling them to explore different dimensions and complexities of a topic. Exposure to diverse perspectives enables consumers to critically evaluate the relevance and applicability of information, ultimately helping them extract the most pertinent insights tailored to their specific needs [69]. John and De’Villiers [70] suggest that consumers are more likely to actively engage with visual content, leading to a deeper understanding of the product and a greater propensity to adopt the information conveyed in the visual eWOM message. Interaction with visual elements not only improves comprehension but also fosters a sense of trust and reliability, especially when consumers witness products being used or see others’ positive experiences [37]. Based on this reasoning, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H4 Visual eWOM’s information quantity has a positive impact on information usefulness.

The quantity of information available can significantly influence consumers’ propensity to adopt it. When users are exposed to a large volume of detailed and relevant information, they can gain a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter, which is crucial for informed decision-making [71]. This extensive information enhances the source’s credibility, as users tend to trust content-rich sources. Moreover, the availability of abundant information helps reduce uncertainty and ambiguity, allowing users to feel more confident in their decisions [72]. Visual elements, such as images and videos, play a vital role in clarifying complex product features and functionalities, making the information more accessible and comprehensible [73]. Users often perceive more substantial value in extensive information, believing that it offers deeper insights and knowledge [74].

This comprehensive information promotes greater engagement and involvement, which leads to deeper exploration and understanding of the content [75]. Such engagement aids decision-making by providing the necessary justification for users’ choices, thereby increasing the likelihood of information adoption [76]. Ultimately, ample information enhances cognitive processing, allowing users to more effectively process and internalize the content. As a result, users are more likely to adopt the information when they feel well-informed, confident, and supported by the depth and breadth of the available content [77]. Hence, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H5 Visual eWOM’s information quantity has a positive impact on information adoption.

When sufficient information is available, it satisfies the curiosity of individuals seeking knowledge, resulting in a more favorable attitude toward the information source [78]. Access to abundant information enables individuals to make more informed choices, which boosts their confidence and fosters a positive attitude [79]. This abundance can also alleviate cognitive dissonance by helping individuals reconcile conflicting viewpoints, resulting in a more favorable perception [80]. Moreover, the availability of a large quantity of information promotes prolonged engagement, which deepens the connection with the material and enhances the attitude towards it [81].

According to Karami [82], a higher quantity of well-chosen visuals, such as images and videos, can foster more positive attitudes by facilitating deeper mental processing of the content. The extensive availability of information enables individuals to support their arguments or viewpoints, thereby strengthening their positive attitudes [83]. When consumers encounter a greater volume of visual eWOM, they are more likely to compare different sources, cross-check information, and validate their perspectives. The inclusion of diverse perspectives broadens understanding and appreciation, contributing to a more positive overall attitude [46]. Mathur et al. [59] suggest that images and videos showcasing a product’s appeal or positive user experiences can evoke positive emotions, ultimately fostering a more favorable attitude towards the eWOM content and potentially influencing purchase decisions. Thus, the quantity of information not only satisfies curiosity and reduces cognitive dissonance but also fosters deeper engagement, supports argumentation, and incorporates diverse perspectives, all contributing to a more positive attitude towards the information [84]. Consequently, the following hypothesis is formulated:

H6 Visual eWOM’s information quantity has a positive impact on attitude towards information.

2.3.3. Visual eWOM’s information credibility impact on information usefulness, information adoption, attitude toward information.

Information credibility (INC), is defined by Tseng and Fogg [85] as the perceived believability of information, influenced by trustworthiness and expertise. These elements are crucial in determining how users evaluate and respond to visual eWOM information. Trustworthy and expert visual content significantly enhances cognitive responses and increases the perceived usefulness of the information. When visual eWOM originates from reliable sources, it boosts the perceived reliability of the information, making users more inclined to trust and act on it [86]. Authentic visuals, such as user-generated content that showcases real-life experiences, reduce skepticism and elevate the perceived value of the information [87]. High-quality visuals that clearly detail products and user experiences further contribute to the clarity and utility of the information [88]. Additionally, credible visuals often have higher persuasive power due to their aesthetic appeal, effectively showcasing a product’s value or service’s value. These visuals engage users more effectively, capturing their attention and fostering greater interaction, which enhances information retention and perceived usefulness [89]. Furthermore, visual eWOM from reputable sources provides social proof, validating positive experiences and reinforcing the information’s utility. By ensuring the credibility of visual eWOM, content creators and marketers can significantly enhance the perceived usefulness of their information, resulting in better-informed consumers and more effective communication [37]. Based on the literature, the following hypothesis is developed:

H7 Visual eWOM’s information credibility has a positive impact on information usefulness.

Credible sources with established reputations for honesty amplify the trustworthiness of the information, leading to a higher likelihood of adoption [36]. Visual content provides tangible and authentic representations of products or services, which effectively mitigates uncertainty and builds user confidence in the information presented [90]. For instance, a video demonstrating a product’s use can provide a clearer, more convincing portrayal than text alone. Additionally, visual eWOM can evoke emotional responses that strengthen the perceived credibility of the information. Engaging and high-quality visuals are capable of eliciting positive emotions, which in turn can influence users’ attitudes toward the content [91]. Social proof, indicated by metrics such as likes, shares, or comments, reinforces the credibility of the information [43]. High engagement levels signal to potential adopters that the information is valued by others, thereby increasing its perceived relevance [92]. Moreover, visuals often simplify complex information, making it more accessible and comprehensible, which in turn facilitates easier adoption [93]. When visual eWOM aligns with users’ prior expectations or experiences, it reinforces the credibility of the content, as consistency with previously encountered information validates its accuracy and reliability [94]. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H8 Visual eWOM’s information credibility has a positive impact on information adoption.

Credible visual eWOM, characterized by high-quality images, videos, or infographics from authoritative or reliable sources, fosters a sense of trustworthiness among users [91]. This trust is fundamental as it supports the perceived accuracy and reliability of the information, making users more receptive and positive towards it [56]. Additionally, engaging and professionally produced visual content captures users’ attention more effectively than textual information, thereby improving their understanding and retention [95]. The principle of social proof further reinforces this effect, as endorsements or shared experiences from trusted or influential figures lend additional credibility to the visual content [96]. Furthermore, the emotional resonance of well-crafted visuals can elicit positive emotional responses, further enhancing users’ attitudes [91]. Overall, the integration of credibility into visual eWOM facilitates a more favorable attitude toward the information by combining trust, accuracy, engagement, social validation, and emotional impact [97]. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H9 Visual eWOM’s information credibility has a positive impact on attitude towards information.

2.3.4. Visual eWOM’s information usefulness impact on information adoption and online purchase intention.

Information usefulness (INU) plays a crucial role in shaping consumer engagement with information systems, as it helps individuals process and evaluate relevant content, ultimately aiding them in making well-informed decisions [98]. When information is perceived as useful, consumers are more likely to invest time and effort in understanding and utilizing it, reinforcing its impact on their decision-making processes [98]. In the context of visual eWOM, the perceived usefulness of visual content such as user-generated images, videos, and reviews plays a significant role in shaping consumer behavior. When users find visual eWOM to be useful, it enhances their trust in the information presented, which, in turn, increases the likelihood of adopting the information [86]. Useful visual eWOM that effectively reduces uncertainty about a product or service by showcasing real-life user experiences, through elements like social proof, contributes to this trust and adoption [36]. This validation from other users can positively influence information adoption. Furthermore, the superior processing and retention of visual information compared to text-based content bolsters its effectiveness. The human brain’s ability to process and remember visual information more efficiently means that useful visual eWOM aids in the recall of key product details, which supports information adoption [99]. Empirical evidence highlights the substantial impact of visual eWOM on adoption rates, emphasizing its role in simplifying complex information and enhancing perceived authenticity through visual elements [100]. Based on these insights, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H10 Visual eWOM’s information usefulness has a positive impact on information adoption.

The usefulness of visual eWOM significantly influences online purchase intentions by addressing perceived risk and enhancing trust and credibility. According to González-Rodríguez et al. [86], the usefulness of eWOM information plays an important role in shaping online purchase intention. Detailed and informative visual eWOM, including reviews and testimonials, clarifies product quality and performance, thereby making consumers feel more secure about their purchasing decisions [71]. Additionally, when visual eWOM effectively showcases the benefits and advantages of a product, it enhances the perceived value of the product, leading to a greater likelihood of purchase [101]. Consumers are more likely to return to online stores if they find the eWOM information helpful in making informed decisions [102]. Similarly, Xiao et al. [67] found that consumers are more inclined to consider a product worth purchasing when they clearly understand its value proposition through useful eWOM. Furthermore, when consumers perceive the information as credible and trustworthy, they tend to trust the brand and develop a positive attitude toward purchasing [103]. By mitigating perceived risks and building credibility, useful visual eWOM significantly boosts online purchase intentions, contributing to a positive consumer experience and encouraging repeat visits to online platforms [46]. Therefore, the following hypothesis is established:

H11 Visual eWOM’s information Usefulness has a positive impact on Online Purchase Intention.

2.3.5. Attitude towards visual eWOM’s information impact on information adoption.

Attitude toward information (ATI) is a critical determinant in shaping individuals’ responses to messages, including eWOM. Attitude is defined by Eagly and Chaiken [104] as a psychological tendency expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor. When eWOM content aligns with an individual’s specific needs and interests, it fosters a more positive attitude, subsequently enhancing engagement and increasing the likelihood of information adoption [105]. Furthermore, when information is presented in a well-structured, detailed, and easily understandable manner, it facilitates cognitive processing by reducing ambiguity and enhancing comprehension [106]. A well-organized presentation allows individuals to systematically analyze the credibility and relevance of the content, increasing their confidence in the information provided.

Moreover, emotional and social influences further impact attitudes and adoption. eWOM that elicits emotional responses, or comes from trusted peers and social circles, can significantly strengthen positive attitudes [107]. Positive emotional connections and social proof, such as endorsements from friends or influencers, enhance the likelihood of information adoption [108]. The consistency and frequency of eWOM exposure also reinforce positive attitudes. Regular exposure to consistent, positive messaging solidifies user attitudes, fostering habitual reliance on eWOM for decision-making [102]. Platforms like Instagram and YouTube are particularly effective due to their ability to capture attention and evoke strong emotional responses through visual content. These platforms facilitate storytelling through images and videos, making the information more relatable, compelling, and easier to adopt [109]. Based on these insights, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H12 Attitude toward visual eWOM’s information has a positive impact on information adoption.

Favorable attitudes towards eWOM can evoke positive emotional responses, such as enthusiasm or excitement, which increase the consumer’s motivation to buy [45]. A positive attitude towards eWOM not only enhances the perceived value of the information but also elevates the perceived value of the product or service, making consumers more likely to act on the information [63]. Additionally, by mitigating perceived risks associated with online purchasing such as concerns about product quality or service reliability a positive attitude towards eWOM reassures consumers, alleviating their apprehensions and increasing their likelihood of making a purchase [37].

The positive attitude towards eWOM effectively bridges the gap between trust, perceived value, emotional engagement, social proof, and risk reduction, leading to a heightened intention to purchase online. Studies employing the SOR framework have demonstrated that visual stimuli in eWOM can evoke positive emotional responses, enhancing the persuasiveness of the information and increasing purchase likelihood [32]. Furthermore, repetitive exposure to positive eWOM fosters familiarity and comfort with the product or service, which reinforces purchase intention through increased familiarity [110]. Consumers who develop a positive perception of eWOM are more likely to engage in further research or exploration of the product, thereby increasing their readiness and intention to make a purchase [111]. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H13 Attitude toward visual eWOM’s information has a positive impact on online purchase intention.

2.3.6. Visual eWOM’s information adoption impact on online purchase intention.

Information adoption (INA) refers to the process through which individuals actively evaluate, internalize, and apply information to guide their decision-making. This process requires assessing the credibility, relevance, and usefulness of the information before incorporating it into their cognitive framework [112]. In the context of visual eWOM, this process is crucial for influencing consumer behavior, particularly online purchase intention. When consumers adopt information presented in visual eWOM in their knowledge base, they often gain enhanced knowledge and active recall about a product’s features and benefits. This increased understanding empowers them to make informed decisions, bolstering their confidence and subsequently increasing their likelihood of making a purchase [38].

The emotional connection fostered by visual eWOM is another critical factor. Personal stories and experiences shared through eWOM can evoke strong emotional responses, thereby strengthening consumers’ purchase intentions [113]. Additionally, the comparative advantage highlighted in positive eWOM where the product’s superiority over competitors is emphasized can sway consumers towards choosing the featured product [114]. The perceived popularity of a product, as indicated by a large volume of positive eWOM, can create a bandwagon effect, compelling consumers to purchase to align with the majority [115].

Detailed customer testimonials provide practical insights into real-life product performance, which are often more persuasive than generic product descriptions. These testimonials help build trust and, consequently, enhance purchase intention [116]. Moreover, interactive engagement on platforms with Q&A sections allows potential buyers to ask questions and receive real-time feedback. This immediate clarification of doubts reinforces purchase decisions, making consumers more comfortable with committing to a purchase [117]. Therefore, the adoption of information from visual eWOM not only enriches consumers’ knowledge and emotional connection but also leverages social proof and interactive engagement to solidify purchase intentions. Hence, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H14 Visual eWOM’s information adoption has a positive impact on online purchase intention.

4.1.1. Internal consistency reliability.

To evaluate the reliability and accuracy of the measurement instruments, several metrics were employed, including Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE). The results, presented in Table 2, indicate that all constructs exhibited satisfactory levels of internal consistency and convergent validity. Cronbach’s alpha values for the constructs ranged from 0.740 to 0.828, exceeding the threshold of 0.7, which suggests that the constructs have a satisfactory level of internal consistency [130]. Additionally, all item loadings were high, ranging from 0.772 to 0.937, surpassing the threshold of 0.5 [134]. This indicates a strong relationship between the items and their respective latent variables. However, it was noted that the loading for INL2 was slightly lower (0.682) compared to other indicators, suggesting a relatively weaker association with the underlying latent variable. Moreover, all constructs demonstrated AVE values above the recommended threshold of 0.5, and the CR values exceeded 0.7, further confirming the strong convergent validity of the measurement model [134,135]. These findings collectively suggest that the indicators used in the study adequately represent their respective constructs.

4.1.2. Discriminant validity.

Construct validity was further assessed using the Fornell-Larcker criterion and Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) ratios, with results detailed in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. Table 3 presents the Fornell-Larcker criterion results, which assess discriminant validity by comparing the square root of the average variance extracted (AVE) with the correlations between different constructs. The analysis confirmed that for each construct, the square root of its AVE exceeded its correlations with other constructs, with diagonal values ranging from 0.783 to 0.921, all of which exceeded the highest inter-construct correlation of 0.419. This result demonstrates that the constructs are distinct from each other [136]. Additionally, Table 4 shows that the HTMT ratios were all below the recommended threshold of 0.90, with values ranging from 0.139 to 0.521, further confirming the good discriminant validity between the constructs [137]. These findings collectively provide strong evidence for the discriminant validity of all constructs in the study, reinforcing the overall construct validity of the measurement model [133].

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Table 3. Fornell-larcker criterion.

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Table 4. HTMT (Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328093.t004

4.2.1. Assessment of comment method bias.

The presence of strong correlations among observed variables can indicate common method bias, potentially compromising the validity of the scale. In causal models, high levels of multicollinearity among observed variables can distort analytical outcomes and lead to questionable interpretations. To address these concerns, this study employed the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) as a diagnostic tool, in line with the recommendations of Kock [138]. The VIF values for all relationships in the model were carefully examined, with results presented in Table 5 showing values ranging from 1.129 to 1.430. These values fall well below the commonly accepted threshold of 5 [138], suggesting that multicollinearity is not a significant issue in this model. The highest VIF (1.430) is observed in the relationship between INC and INA, while the lowest (1.129) is associated with the relationship between INU and OPI. These findings support the discriminant validity of the constructs and reinforce the overall reliability of the structural model’s results.

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Table 5. Results of testing hypotheses in the theoretical framework.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328093.t005

4.2.2. Results of testing hypotheses.

The results of the hypothesis testing, presented in Table 5 and Fig 2, provide substantial support for most of the hypotheses, with the exceptions of H3, H5, and H11, which were not supported by the data. Specifically, hypotheses H1 and H2 were supported, indicating significant positive relationships between information quality (INL) and both information usefulness (INU) (β = 0.128, p = 0.022) and information adoption (INA) (β = 0.125, p = 0.015). These results suggest that high-quality visual information is processed more deeply, leading to lasting attitude changes. The positive impact on information adoption aligns with the concept of cognitive ease and fluency, where high-quality visuals defined by clarity, aesthetics, relevance, and coherence are inherently more engaging and easier to process. Consequently, such visuals evoke favorable cognitive and affective responses, making consumers more likely to perceive the information as useful and to adopt it. Conversely, hypothesis H3 was not supported, as information quality (INL) did not have a significant effect on attitude toward information (ATI) (β = 0.025, p = 0.630). This suggests that while high-quality visuals improve understanding and engagement, they may not directly influence overall attitudes toward the information. This also indicates that other factors such as credibility and source expertise might play a more dominant role in attitude formation.

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Fig 2. PLS-SEM Results (Structural Model).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328093.g002

Regarding information quantity (INT), the analysis results supported H4 and H6, showing significant positive relationships between information quantity (INT) and both information usefulness (INU) (β = 0.211, p = 0.000) and attitude (ATI) (β = 0.126, p = 0.028). These findings underscore the power of visual abundance in capturing consumer attention and shaping favorable perceptions, aligning with the mere exposure effect. Moreover, the positive relationship between information quantity (INT) and information usefulness (INU) suggests that a higher quantity of visuals can signal the information’s comprehensiveness and value, particularly in online environments where consumers have limited time to evaluate numerous options. However, H5 was not supported, as the quantity of information (INT) did not significantly affect information adoption (INA) (β = 0.076, p = 0.175). This finding underscores the limitations of depending solely on the quantity of visual content to drive behavioral change. It supports the concept of information overload, where an excessive amount of visual stimuli can overwhelm consumers and impede their ability to process information effectively.

Information credibility (INC) emerged as a particularly strong predictor, with all related hypotheses (H7, H8, and H9) being supported. Specifically, information credibility (INC) showed significant positive relationships with information usefulness (INU) (β = 0.189, p = 0.000), information adoption (INA) (β = 0.197, p = 0.002), and attitude (ATI) (β = 0.364, p = 0.000). These findings underscore the critical role of credibility in shaping consumer perceptions and behaviors. The strong relationship between information credibility (INC) and information adoption (INA) suggests that credible information is more likely to be internalized and integrated into consumers’ decision-making processes. Moreover, the influence of information credibility (INC) on attitude (ATI) is consistent with the SOR theory, indicating that credible stimuli evoke positive emotional responses, such as trust and confidence. These results emphasize the necessity of enhancing trust and credibility in visual eWOM strategies to effectively influence consumer attitudes and actions.

The analysis also supported H10, demonstrating a significant positive relationship between information usefulness (INU) and information adoption (INA) (β = 0.167, p = 0.001). This finding underscores the importance of perceived usefulness in driving information adoption. However, H11 was not supported, as information usefulness (INU) did not directly influence online purchase intention (OPI) (β = 0.025, p = 0.639). This suggests that usefulness alone may not be sufficient to drive purchase intentions, emphasizing the role of other factors moderating in shaping consumer choices.

Attitude towards information (ATI) demonstrated significant positive relationships with both information adoption (INA) (β = 0.172, p = 0.004) and online purchase intention (OPI) (β = 0.138, p = 0.025), supporting H12 and H13. These results underscore the critical role of attitudes in shaping information processing and decision-making. Specifically, the positive relationship between attitude (ATI) and online purchase intention (OPI) illustrates how emotional responses influence consumer behavior, demonstrating the impact of attitudes on driving purchase intentions. Finally, H14 was supported, showing a strong positive relationship between information adoption (INA) and online purchase intention (OPI) (β = 0.354, p = 0.000). This result indicates that information adoption is a crucial mediator between perceived visual eWOM characteristics and purchase intention.

4.2.3. Evaluation of explanation and prediction power of research model.

In assessing the performance metrics of the research model, both explanatory power (R²) and predictive relevance (Q²) were evaluated for the endogenous constructs [139]. Table 6 outlines the R² and Q² values for online purchase intention (OPI), information usefulness (INU), information adoption (INA), and attitude towards information (ATI). The R² values ranged from 0.152 to 0.234, reflecting weak to moderate explanatory power based on Hair et al. [140] criteria. Information adoption (INA) demonstrated the highest R² at 0.234, indicating that the model explains 23.4% of its variance, while INU had the lowest R² at 0.152. The Q² values, which ranged from 0.102 to 0.159, all indicated modest predictive relevance for the constructs [141]. Information adoption (INA) again showed the strongest performance with a Q² of 0.159, whereas information usefulness (INU) had the lowest Q² at 0.102. These findings suggest that while the model offers useful explanatory and predictive insights, particularly for information adoption (INA), there may be other factors not captured by the current model that could further clarify the variance in the endogenous constructs.

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Table 6. Performance metrics (R-squared, Q-squared).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328093.t006

4.2.4. Importance performance matrix analysis (IPMA).

The Importance Performance Matrix Analysis (IPMA) offers valuable insights into the relative importance and performance of latent variables in predicting online purchase intention (OPI) [142]. As presented in Table 7, information adoption (INA) emerges as the most critical factor, with the highest importance score (total effect) of 0.358 and a relatively high-performance level of 63.064. This suggests that information adoption (INA) is a significant driver of online purchase intention (OPI) and is relatively well-managed in the current context. Attitude towards information (ATI) is the second most important factor, with an importance score of 0.187 and a high-performance rating of 62.353.

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Table 7. Importance performance matrix analysis (IPMA).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328093.t007

Interestingly, while information usefulness (INU) exhibits the highest performance score (69.760), its importance score (0.093) is relatively low. This discrepancy indicates that current practices might be overemphasizing the usefulness of information. Conversely, visual eWOM information credibility (INC) shows moderate importance (0.165) but the lowest performance score (44.370), highlighting a critical area for improvement. Visual eWOM information quality (INL) and information quantity (INT) have the lowest importance scores (0.065 and 0.056, respectively) with moderate performance levels, suggesting these factors might have less influence on online purchase intention (OPI) than previously assumed.

These IPMA results provide strategic direction for both practitioners and researchers, emphasizing the need to allocate resources towards enhancing information adoption (INA) and visual eWOM information credibility (INC) to potentially boost online purchase intention [142,143]. The analysis also indicates opportunities for a more balanced approach in managing different aspects of visual eWOM information, particularly by reallocating efforts from information usefulness (INU) to factors with greater impact.

Further exploration of the data through a priority map, presented in Fig 3, shows the performance levels on the vertical axis and the importance of factors on the horizontal gradient. The map reveals that information adoption (INA) and attitude toward information (ATI) are the most influential factors impacting online purchase intention. This indicates that customers are significantly affected by their acceptance of eWOM information and their overall attitude toward it when making online purchase decisions. These factors are crucial in shaping buying behavior in the digital marketplace. Conversely, factors such as information quantity (INT), information quality (INL), and information credibility (INC) should also be considered for a comprehensive strategy.

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Fig 3. Importance and performance map (priority map) of IPMA for the customer’s online purchase intention.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328093.g003

In conclusion, this study provides a clear understanding of the factors influencing online purchase intention through visual eWOM. The analysis confirms the reliability and validity of the constructs and measurements within this context. The research model demonstrates moderate explanatory power and predictive relevance, with information adoption (INA) and attitude towards information (ATI) emerging as critical drivers of consumer behavior. The findings underscore the vital role of information credibility (INC) in shaping consumer attitudes and adoption, highlighting the need for trustworthy visual eWOM content. While information usefulness (INU) performs well, its lower importance suggests a need for a more balanced focus across eWOM elements. The Importance-Performance Matrix Analysis (IPMA) identifies opportunities for improvement, particularly in enhancing the credibility and quality of visual eWOM content to better drive purchase intentions. Overall, the model provides valuable insights for optimizing digital marketing strategies by prioritizing credible, high-quality visual eWOM that aligns with consumer attitudes and promotes information adoption.

5.1.1. Theoretical implications.

This research makes several key theoretical contributions to the understanding of visual eWOM and its role in shaping consumer behavior. First, it extends the SOR model to the context of visual eWOM on social media. While prior research has primarily focused on textual eWOM, this study emphasizes how visual elements serve as stimuli that trigger cognitive and affective processes, ultimately influencing purchase intention. By integrating visual communication into the SOR framework, this study provides a more comprehensive understanding of consumer decision-making in a digital environment where visual content is increasingly dominant.

Second, this research introduces information adoption (INA) as a critical mediator in the relationship between visual eWOM characteristics and purchase intention. Our findings demonstrate that while information quality, quantity, and credibility influence perceived usefulness and attitudes, it is the active adoption of the information – the process of internalizing and integrating it into one’s existing knowledge and beliefs – that ultimately drives purchase behavior. This finding significantly extends previous eWOM research, which has often focused on direct relationships between eWOM characteristics and purchase intention, without fully considering the crucial role of information adoption as a necessary intervening step. This insight adds a new dimension to eWOM literature by demonstrating that information adoption is not just an outcome but a pivotal mechanism in visual communication’s effectiveness.

Third, the study reveals a nuanced interplay between cognitive and affective processes. Unlike textual eWOM, where information quantity plays a more direct role, our findings show that credibility is the strongest predictor of attitude, underscoring the importance of trustworthiness in visual contexts. Additionally, while information quality enhances perceived usefulness (a cognitive evaluation), it does not directly influence attitude toward information. This suggests that in the visual domain, the believability of the source is more influential in shaping consumers’ emotional responses than the sheer volume of information presented. Moreover, the study highlights the risk of information overload in visually rich environments, where excess information may not necessarily lead to adoption, setting it apart from textual eWOM studies.

Finally, the study challenges the assumption that information usefulness alone can drive purchase intention. While perceived usefulness is a prerequisite for information adoption, it must be coupled with a positive attitude and the active integration of information to effectively influence purchasing decisions. This finding contributes to a more holistic and sequential understanding of consumer decision-making in the context of visual eWOM. By revealing how cognitive and affective responses interact in a visually driven environment, this study advances the theoretical discourse on digital consumer behavior and offers valuable insights for future research on social media marketing.

5.1.2. Managerial implications.

This study provides actionable insights for marketers aiming to leverage visual eWOM on social media effectively. To maximize the impact of visual eWOM on consumer behavior, brands should focus on four key areas: content quality, credibility, engagement strategies, and performance measurement.

The demonstrated significance of information quality on both information usefulness and adoption underscores the critical need for high-quality visuals. This extends beyond aesthetics; brands should invest not only in professional photography and videography but also in ensuring the accuracy, relevance, and clarity of visual content. Visuals should directly address consumer needs and accurately represent product features. While a visually engaging presence is important (supported by the positive correlation between information quantity and attitude), marketers must balance quantity with quality to avoid cognitive overload. Regularly posting aesthetically pleasing content is a starting point, but encouraging user-generated visual content (UGVC) is crucial for building authenticity and social proof. Visual storytelling, showcasing real customer experiences, can foster emotional connections and enhance credibility.

The finding emphasizes the critical role of information credibility in influencing consumer behavior. To establish trust and authenticity, marketers should prioritize transparency and authenticity in all visual eWOM communications. This means partnering with credible influencers whose values align with the brand, clearly disclosing sponsored content, and ensuring visual representations of products or services are accurate and not misleading. Furthermore, actively managing visual eWOM is essential. This involves promptly responding to customer reviews and comments (both positive and negative), addressing concerns publicly and transparently, and actively promoting positive UGVC. A/B testing different visual styles and messaging can help optimize content for engagement and adoption.

Finally, understanding the crucial role of information adoption means marketers should design visual campaigns that actively encourage interaction and internalization. This could involve incorporating interactive elements like polls, quizzes, or questions within visual content, prompting users to share their own experiences, or using calls to action that encourage consumers to learn more or try the product. Ultimately, a successful visual eWOM strategy requires a holistic approach that prioritizes quality, credibility, engagement, and a deep understanding of how consumers process and adopt visual information. Measuring the performance of these efforts by examining information adoption metrices are crucial.