General Dimension: Sailing the boat fast.

Five higher order themes clustered together to establish the general dimension of sailing the boat fast: ‘hiking ability’, ‘fitness’, ‘anthropometric characteristics’, ‘feel’, and ‘trimming accuracy’ (Table 1). Each of the higher order themes represent key aspects that coaches discussed as being crucial to boat speed (i.e., sailing the boat fast).

Hiking is an important aspect in ILCA sailing, especially when winds exceed ~8 knots [11,26]. ‘Hiking ability’ was raised by coaches as key to sailing a boat fast upwind. When referring to ‘hiking ability’, coaches referenced both the ability to hike at full extension, and sustain that extension:

“The ability to, I guess, move your body around appropriately is important for speed. But you’ve got to be able to get the extension, and be able to hold that extension.” [P1]

Pan and Sun’s study [12] of the 2019−2020 Hempel World Cup Series and Tokyo Olympic Games reported a moderate to high correlation between first upwind mark position of sailors and their final race ranking (r ranging 0.762–0.851, p < 0.01) across all three wind conditions (<8knots, 8−12knots and >12knots). This result indicates the importance of hiking ability as well as strategical, tactical, and starting ability to regatta performance. Additionally, the correlation between hiking endurance (i.e., sustained extension on a hiking bench) and performance in major regattas has been shown to be inversely high (r = −0.82; p < 0.05), with longer hiking duration on the hiking bench associated with a better finishing position in racing [27].

The higher order theme of ‘fitness’ was often directly related to the athlete’s ‘hiking ability’ by coaches. Previous investigations have indicated a range of correlations when examining the relationship between aerobic fitness and regatta performance. For example, Legg et al. [2] studied New Zealand sailors preparing for the 1996 Olympics and found that correlations between regatta results and 2500m rowing score for six ILCA7 sailors were r=0.22 at Sail Auckland and r=0.70 at the Laser Nationals in moderate winds, and r=0.62 at the Olympic Trials in light winds. Although this study had a small number of participants, these outcomes highlight the importance of other factors such as skill and tactical ability to overall racing performance in an ILCA. Additionally, Tan et al. [26] identified that of 13 physical parameters (e.g., vertical jump, cycling time to exhaustion, three repetition max strength), only body mass (r=-0.69, p<0.01), and maximal hiking moment over 180 s (r_s=-0.62, p<0.01) were associated with better racing results in male ILCA sailors during a National Inter-School Laser Championship in Singapore. This concurs with the coaches’ views that fitness, in terms of sailing the boat fast, and performance are strongly related and associated to hiking ability. Future studies with larger sample sizes and a greater number of competitions in varying wind conditions may better elucidate whether more traditional markers of aerobic fitness (e.g., maximal oxygen uptake etc.) relate to competition performance.

All coaches agreed on the importance of “being the right size” [P6, P7, P8], with ‘anthropometric characteristics’ identified as a higher order theme attributing to the general dimension of sailing the boat fast:

“If I broke it down technically, from the performance of Laser sailing, you’ve got start with your body. I think you’ve got to be the right size, you know, we’ve got to be in the range of the right body weight, and the right, just basic levers and functionality.” [P7]

This is particularly important to be able to create a righting moment when hiking to counteract the force of the wind in the sail [6,28,29]. Recent research featuring athletes in the ILCA7 class reports the anthropometric characteristics of 11 elite males (age: 23.2 ± 3.4 y) as 182.5 ± 5 cm and 82.6 ± 2.3 kg [15]. Additionally, a study of Chinese sailors competing at the 2020 Chinese National Championship reported the anthropometrics of 27 ILCA6 sailors (age: 20.5 ± 4.1 y), with a height of 171.4 ± 3.6 cm and body mass of 60.8 ± 4.3 kg [30]. Coaches also emphasised that venue-specific conditions, such as wind strength and sea state etc., significantly influence what would be considered as optimal anthropometric characteristics. For instance, coaches explained that lighter sailors may excel in lighter winds due to reduced drag, while heavier sailors benefit from a greater righting moment in stronger winds, enabling them to maintain a flatter boat and increased upwind speed. Additionally, coaches mentioned equipment and rule changes over time have driven shifts in anthropometric requirements, as seen in the rise in ILCA7 sailors’ body mass from ~75–79 kg in the 1990s and 2000s [7,31,32] to recent years.

Additionally, the concept of ‘feel’, representing a sailor’s capacity to harmonize boat movement with wind and wave conditions, is frequently associated with innate talent. Several coaches have identified ‘feel’ as a crucial factor influencing an athlete’s capability to optimise boat speed under varying conditions:

“So, I would say more upwind and downwind we focus a lot. And, you know, on downwinds it’s also VMG (velocity made good) and all that feel and knowledge, so you’re not going fast and in the wrong direction.” [P9]

To the authors’ knowledge, no literature in sailing has described this phenomenon. However, a recent study that explored expert rowing coaches’ perspectives on performance indicators, also highlighted ‘boat feel’ as an intrinsic trait or innate quality of importance and association with more technically competent athletes [19]. Similarly, in swimming, having good “feel for the water” (which can also be referred to as smoothness) is a factor that can distinguish between elite and non-elite swimmers, and although it is a subjective expression, it is an important factor to improve within a training program [33].

Finally, ‘trimming accuracy’ and automatic trimming skills were noted as imperative to sailing the boat fast. While previous research in ILCA sailing has not specifically explored the technical ability of trimming (i.e., adjustment of the sail), one study has explored the physical forces associated with mainsheet trimming [34]. Preliminary investigations into the force of trimming the mainsheet when upwind sailing indicated that the average mainsheet force for a club sailor increased, as expected, when the wind strength increased from the 5-10 knot (78 N) range to 10-15 knots (81 N) [34]. However, the opposite trend was evident for an elite sailor, where the average mainsheet force decreased in stronger winds (5-10 knots: 97 N, 10-15 knots: 81 N) [34]. These results were attributed to a potential difference in skill, where the elite sailor made more frequent adjustments to the mainsail under higher wind conditions, possibly leading to a lower overall tension in the mainsheet. Although this observation is limited by factors such as uncontrolled sail settings, individual body weight differences, and wave variations, it still provides valuable insights into the relationship between skill and trimming technique [34]. These findings align with broader research using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and Velocity Prediction Programs (VPP), which indicate that maintaining optimal sail shape and depowering strategies are critical for performance [35–37]. Ma et al. [36] further demonstrated how adjustments in sailing angle, attack angle, pitch angle and camber ratio influence sail aerodynamics, providing insights into trimming during different race stages (e.g., start, upwind, downwind leg etc.). While these studies primarily model ideal trimming strategies, the current findings – both from real-world force measurements and from the coaches’ observations in this study – provide empirical support that precise sail trim is a key determinant of performance. Therefore, the collective evidence of these investigations reinforce the importance of skill and technical training for ILCA sailors.

Overall, these higher order themes within the sailing the boat fast general dimension are key aspects that primarily align with the physical characteristics and technical abilities of the athlete. Coaches highlighted that ‘hiking ability’ is a key element in the success of an ILCA sailor, which is congruent with the current literature in this space. ‘Fitness’ was often related by coaches to hiking ability, underscoring the importance of the specificity of fitness for sailing. Additionally, the importance of ‘feel’ across different conditions (wind, sea-state, current etc.) is a factor that coaches, support staff, and researchers could investigate to ensure athletes are exposed to a wide range of conditions during training to optimise their learning opportunities. Furthermore, ‘anthropometric characteristics’ could help provide guidelines for talent identification, as well as performance support practitioners working with athletes to change body composition. Finally, the importance of ‘trimming accuracy’ to sailing the boat fast should be considered in a coach’s technical framework and feedback during on-water training sessions. In summary, encompassing tailored fitness programs, diverse on-water experiences, targeted talent identification, and comprehensive technical coaching are crucial to develop athletes capable of sailing the boat fast and excelling in competitive sailing environments.

General Dimension: Being a knowledgeable athlete.

Five higher order themes grouped together to develop the general dimension of being a knowledgeable athlete: ‘ability to learn’, ‘pattern recognition’, ‘decision making’, ‘experience’ and ‘knowing your equipment’ (Table 1). For a long time, physiological and biomechanical factors have been heavily researched and emphasised in differentiating levels of sports performance, however, since the 1980s, the importance of the cognitive system in sport expertise has garnered more attention [38,39].

The first higher order theme was ‘ability to learn’. This was highlighted by several coaches, with one describing ability as:

“Ability is probably the ability to learn, whereas if it was our natural ability, everyone can see what that is. But ability also comes under the guise of being able to learn and change.” [P1]

It has been reported that professional athletes have extraordinary skills for rapidly learning unpredictable, complex, and dynamic visual scenes that are void of any specific context [40]. This rapid learning in complex and unpredictable dynamic contexts is highlighted as a critical component for elite performance [40]. In the coaching literature, creating an environment focussed on learning has also been highlighted as a key factor in the coaching process [41].

The higher order themes of ‘pattern recognition’, ‘decision making’, and ‘experience’ are closely related but are also distinct. ‘Pattern recognition’ is the perceptual-cognitive skill related to superior recall, detection and recognition of patterns of play, more efficient and appropriate visual search behaviours, and better anticipation of likely events [39]. Many coaches highlighted the importance of good ‘pattern recognition’ in both tactical and strategical aspects of performance:

“what I would call sailing intelligence, like your tactics, strategy. And a lot of that has to do with pattern recognition.” [P7]

‘Pattern recognition’ allows sailors to process environmental cues, such as wind shifts, wave formations and fleet movements, more effectively, leading to faster and more accurate decision making [42]. This has been well documented in other elite level sports, such as hockey and football, where it has been shown that pattern recognition skill is an important component of performance and can distinguish between greater and lesser skilled players [43]. However, the only research in sailing to date has focussed on computer simulations [42] and junior athletes [44], highlighting a clear opportunity for further investigation into how elite ILCA sailors develop and apply pattern recognition skills in real-world conditions.

Additionally, ‘experience’ was emphasised as a higher order theme related to partaking in regattas, especially high-calibre international regattas, and the ‘experience’ and learnings of being in more high-pressure situations:

“Watching the tracking of the Olympic racing right now and seeing some of the sailors coming from in the teens to be in the top few is what really makes them successful. It’s having that ability to just come back to it, to keep the score. That comes from experience.” [P3]

In support of this idea, both age and sailing experience have been reported as key factors in the performance success of Olympic-class sailors [29,30]. Moreover, this aligns with Henriksen et al. [45] who highlighted the importance of gaining experience at high level international competitions as part of the talent development process in another Olympic sailing class (49er).

Furthermore, ‘decision making’ can be defined under an ecological dynamics perspective as a perception-action skill which is focused on the performer-environment system [46]. Coaches mentioned both having the cognitive ability to process the necessary information for decision making, and the ability to make good decisions under pressure, as key sailing success factors. ‘Decision making’ in sailing has been researched through computer simulations [42] and visual search and movement behaviours [13]. Pluijms et al. [13] found that better performances during a windward mark rounding were related to releasing the trimming lines closer to rounding the mark and gazing to the tangent point (i.e., single stationary point referred to as the apex) during the actual mark rounding. These findings suggest that skilled sailors engage in highly specific visual and movement behaviours that enhance their decision making efficiency. However, these findings are limited to an isolated aspect of sailing performance (windward mark rounding), whereas our study further extends the importance of both cognitive processing and the ability to make decisions under pressure as key determinants of success. Our coaches’ insights highlight the need for training strategies that develop an athlete’s ability to process complex, rapidly changing environmental cues and execute optimal decisions in high stress competitive scenarios.

Finally, the importance of ‘knowing your equipment’ was also highlighted by coaches. Even though the ILCA is a one-design class, coaches made note of still having intimate knowledge of your own boat to be able to sail it optimally, due to small differences between boats:

“Especially if you go to the Olympics, and you’re getting your boat given to you, you’ve got to make sure that you don’t have a lemon, and you got to know what a lemon is, you know, because you’re probably not gonna get the best boat you’ve ever had, but you got to make sure it’s not a bad one. And if it’s slightly different, there’s different techniques you can change to deal with it, but if you don’t understand that, you’ll get a silver medal, but you probably won’t get a gold, or you’ll drastically reduce the chance.” [P7]

Overall, these five higher order themes relate to an athlete’s cognitive capability which is a known key factor in elite athlete success [39,47]. Coaches and performance support practitioners should carefully consider and plan the integration of the aforementioned themes into the training program, including utilising regattas to gain experience and spending time to work on having a deep understanding of equipment. Previous research has shown that an athlete’s decision making skills can be enhanced by integrating mental skills training and simulated pressure situations into their training regimes [39]. Additionally, incorporating structured feedback such as debriefing and leveraging competitive experiences as learning opportunities are also crucial for developing the mental aspects critical for success in elite sports [48].

General Dimension: Consistent execution.

Within the general dimension of consistent execution, the higher-order themes were distinct in ‘physical’ and ‘mental’ elements (Table 1).

When referring to consistent execution from a ‘physical’ sense, coaches referred to the consistency of training and work ethic. This is synonymous with the literature, in which training consistency over many years is cited as a key factor in becoming a successful athlete [41,49].

From the ‘mental’ aspect, coaches spoke of the mindset to consistently execute under pressure, the determination to push themselves to excel, and the ability to self-regulate, as important factors in consistently executing elite performances:

“There’s the certain amount of mental consistency in how they go about putting decision making into action and some people don’t have that self-regulation sorted out, to have that level headedness for the whole time.” [P6]

Previous research shows that world class athletes (n = 10, all with either Olympic gold medals and/or world title/championship gold medals in individual or team sports) all referred to their psychological competencies, rather than physical attributes, when asked “to what do you attribute to your success?” [47]. This, combined with our findings, highlights that both athletes and coaches appreciate the importance of mental competencies, such as strong and enduring self-regulation, strong intrinsic motivation, work ethic, preparation and hunger for self-challenge, in determining athletic success [47].

The over-arching general dimension of consistent execution relates to both the mental capabilities highlighted in the general dimension of being a knowledgeable athlete, and the physical characteristics and technical abilities highlighted in sailing the boat fast, where consistent training and practice are needed to improve these factors. Practically, this could mean ensuring that an athlete is consistently training and being exposed to competition events to ensure they develop their physical, technical, tactical, strategical and mental capabilities to perform at their best. Further information and considerations on some of these elements are covered in the topic areas physical demands of competition and training approaches and philosophies below.

General Dimension: Hiking is the most physically demanding skill.

All coaches expressed that hiking is the most physically demanding skill of ILCA sailing. Four higher order themes were established to give an understanding into why coaches thought hiking was so demanding: ‘pain’, ‘unnatural position’, ‘blood flow occlusion’, and ‘sustained extension’ (Table 2).

‘Pain’ and the ‘unnatural position’ of hiking were both referenced by many of the coaches as contributing to the demanding nature:

“just an unnatural position for your body as a human being… something that your brain has to get used to, and you just have to get through that pain. You have to get through that pain, and then you go from there.” [P10]

Hiking has been previously cited as the most demanding aspect of ILCA sailing, with heart rates being significantly higher when sailing upwind (i.e., when hiking) than when reaching or downwind sailing [7,15,50]. Additionally, poor hiking technique and inadequate strength in the hamstrings, quadriceps and trunk have been cited to increase the risk of injuries of the lumbar and thoracic spine and knee, which are most common injuries in Olympic class sailing [51].

When discussing the mechanisms of why hiking is so painful and physically demanding, ‘blood flow occlusion’ was referred to by several coaches. Vogiatzis et al. [52] were able to confirm that there is a reduced oxygen availability in the quadriceps muscle during hiking, due to the restricted muscle blood flow caused by the isometric contraction.

Finally, the importance of ‘sustained extension’ (i.e., holding the hiking position) with proper form (i.e., technique) throughout an upwind leg, was highlighted as a significant factor in the physically demanding nature of hiking. This has previously been investigated, where 12 Europe (similar to an ILCA6) dinghy sailors (seven males, five females, 18 ± 2 years, top 20 of Danish national rankings) showed a ~ 30% drop in hiking strap force between the first and last minute of a 10-min upwind sailing period [53]. This highlights the significant fatigue that occurs during a ‘sustained extension’, emphasising the physically demanding nature of the task.

As ‘hiking is the most physically demanding skill’ of ILCA sailing, it is critically important for coaches and performance support staff to pay close attention to technique and the sailor’s ability to maintain this technique throughout an entire upwind leg. This focus is essential for reducing the risk of injury and optimising upwind boat speed. More details on ‘hiking training’ are covered below in the topic area of training practices and philosophies, general dimension: specific training.

General Dimension: Environmental conditions influence athletic demands.

Four higher order themes clustered together to develop the general dimension of environmental conditions influence athletic demands: ‘strong winds’, ‘uncomfortable temperatures make regattas tough’, ‘light winds are less physically demanding but more mentally demanding’, and ‘big waves increase the challenge’ (Table 2).

‘Strong winds’ were referred to by most coaches as the factor with the biggest impact on the physical demands. Coaches primarily used their own experiences of sailing in windy conditions to recount the impact that the wind had on the physical demands, and how tough regatta/racing was. A previous investigation of two regatta competitions found that for every one knot increase in wind speed, heart rates of sailors increased three beats per min when sailing upwind, downwind and reaching [15]. Additionally, the fractional utilisation of maximum oxygen uptake, percentage of maximum heart rate, and post-test blood lactate values have been shown to be strongly correlated with wind speed during a 10 min on-water upwind sailing test [54]. Moreover, it has been previously established that during a 30-minute upwind test, a linear relationship exists between wind intensity and energy demand (r = 0.85, p < 0.01) [4].

The higher order theme of ‘uncomfortable temperatures make regattas tough’ was developed to recognise both ends of the temperature spectrum. Without careful mitigation strategies, exercise performance has been shown to be reduced in both hot and cold climates [55,56]. Knowledge of these factors, and expected forecasts at regatta locations, can help in the preparation of athletes by implementing appropriate mitigation strategies (i.e., pre-cooling, acclimation etc.). Previous research has shown that heat strain was reduced in elite ILCA sailors following a five-day heat acclimation protocol, with most thermoregulatory adaptations retained for two weeks afterwards [57]. Implementing a brief heat acclimation protocol and periodic re-acclimation sessions has shown to be beneficial in mitigating performance decrements induced by elevated temperatures when athletes are not acclimated [58]. This is especially relevant for ILCA sailors, as their regatta schedules frequently involve transitioning from a cold or cool winter in one hemisphere to a hot summer in the other hemisphere.

The higher order theme of ‘light winds are less physically demanding but more mentally demanding’, was developed from coaches emphasising the influence of wind conditions on the interplay between mental and physical demands during competition. This included the added pressure of mistakes costing more in light wind conditions (expanded on in Table 2). This perspective contradicts the findings of Gonzales et al [59], who reported that young Optimist sailors exhibited poorer cognitive performance after sailing in strong winds. However, their results also showed that higher performing sailors (based on results at regional and national regattas) maintained cognitive performance across all conditions (no wind, light wind: 2–6 knots, strong wind: 11–15 knots) suggesting that the skill level of the athlete plays a role [59]. Further research, particularly in ILCA sailing, is needed to explore this interplay between mental and physical demands during both training and competition. The relationship between mental and physical fatigue is further explored in the general dimension: accumulation of fatigue over a regatta.

Coaches also stated that ‘big waves increase the challenge’, and therefore, the physical demands during competition. Prior work mentions the increased physical demands encountered due to waves via the quote “the impact of environmental factors such as wave motion, wind fluctuations and body movements were responsible for a significant amount of the forces produced when sailing” [34] (p. 84). However, there has been no other investigations into the impact of sea-state on the physical demands of ILCA sailing.

Together, these higher-order themes emphasise the importance of exposure to various conditions, accurate forecasting of competitive environments, and the implementation of strategies like heat acclimation and off-water training preparation to adequately prepare athletes for diverse and challenging sailing conditions. Additionally, further research is required to understand the influence of sea-state on the demands and the relationship between mental and physical demands across wind conditions.

General Dimension: Accumulation of fatigue over a regatta.

The general dimension of accumulation of fatigue over a regatta was developed through the clustering of three higher order themes: ‘backing up day after day’, ‘physical and mental fatigue’ and ‘multiple races on one day’ (Table 2).

Coaches observed that consecutive days of racing (i.e., ‘backing up day after day’), without sufficient recovery, contributed to the physical challenges of competition because the fatigue experienced couldn’t be fully recuperated before the following racing day. Most regattas are held over five to six consecutive days (except for the Olympic Games and some World Championships, where there are reserve/rest days) and usually consist of two 45–60 min races and ~3–4 h on-water per day. This may be a significant factor in the accumulation of fatigue over a regatta, especially if the physical demands of daily racing exceed those experienced in training. However, the direct link between daily and weekly training load and ILCA regatta demands has not yet been investigated. The impact of back-to-back racing days and accumulated time on water on fatigue has previously been reported, with a more demanding regatta schedule (i.e., greater number of races and time on-water) resulting in an increase in subjective fatigue [15].

Furthermore, fatigue was also referenced in terms of both ‘physical and mental fatigue’ with coaches elucidating the closeness and intertwined nature of both mental and physical fatigue:

“It’s the combination of having to do a tough physical workout combined with using your brain. So you’ve got to balance, you’re going to get fatigued in your head and in your body. So the more, the better you train, then it’s going to be easier to cope.” [P9]

Mental fatigue can negatively influence an athlete’s performance, with research revealing reduced performance in tasks involving a high degree of technical skill and endurance-based activities [60]. However, the best way to monitor and manage mental fatigue in applied scenarios, such as sporting competitions, warrants further investigation [60].

Additionally, in close relation to ‘backing up day after day’, the impact of ‘multiple races on one day’ was also highlighted by some coaches as a major contributor to the accumulation of fatigue across a regatta. Generally, racing is scheduled for two races per day; however, with weather delays and abandoned racing there can often be three races per day for multiple days within a regatta. This was demonstrated in a recent study which observed greater increases in ILCA sailors’ perceptual fatigue when there was multiple three race days over the course of a regatta, due to un-sailable conditions on one of the regatta days [15].

Therefore, with the accumulation of fatigue over a regatta it becomes critical to ensure athletes are well prepared for the demands of competition. More details on ‘volume of training’ and ‘mirroring regatta demands in training’ are covered below in the topic area of training practices and philosophies, general dimension: periodisation. Additionally, these higher order themes highlight the importance of incorporating and utilising both physiological and psychological recovery strategies during regattas to minimise the influence of physical and mental fatigue on performance. Although there is limited research in managing physical and mental fatigue in Olympic sailing, strategies such as mindfulness have been shown to be effective in attenuating mental fatigue in other sports, especially during heavy competition periods [61,62]. Additionally, strategies such as cold water immersion have been shown to mediate perceptions of fatigue and leg soreness [63]. However, to optimise performance during competition and training, coaches and the performance support team should ensure athletes have opportunities to practice individualised strategies for managing both mental and physical fatigue during training. This proactive approach allows athletes to integrate and refine effective fatigue management techniques into their routine, rather than introducing unfamiliar interventions during regattas.

General dimension: Periodisation.

The concept of periodisation is the cyclical method of managing training variables to increase the potential for achieving specific performance goals [64]. To develop the general dimension of periodisation, six key higher order themes clustered together (Table 3): ‘goal setting’, ‘annual planning’, ‘volume of training’, ‘mirroring regatta demands in training’, ‘tapering’, and ‘keeping the joy’.

The first higher-order theme, ‘goal setting’, is a key feature of periodisation and the holistic coaching process, aimed at facilitating change and improving performance [65]. Coaches focused on both individual and squad ‘goal setting’. In close relation to ‘goal setting’ was ‘annual planning’, which is the process of organising the year into different phases of training to prepare for specific competitions [66]. Coaches stated the importance of working back from the peak event/competition of the year when preparing their annual plan. However, they also noted that although there is often one main competition to peak for in a year, there are potentially multiple additional regattas that an athlete may also need to peak for (i.e., usually 3–4 international regattas per year). One coach specifically highlighted the prioritisation of periodising the annual training plan around the skills of the sport, rather than physiological fitness.

The third higher order theme, ‘volume of training’, refers to the combined frequency and duration of training sessions, and can be quantified over several time periods (e.g., week, month, year etc.) [66]. Coaches described both the volume of on-water training as well as the combined on- and off-water training:

“Looking at that Olympic level, you’re on the water five days a week. Generally, you’re doing two and a half, three hours a day, on the water.” [P4]

In comparison to other endurance sports, specific on-water ILCA training sessions are typically less frequent (~5 sessions per week), but longer in duration (2.5–3 h) [66]. With the addition of off-water training sessions such as cycling and resistance training, the overall training volume of ILCA sailors gets close to that of U23 cyclists (~750 h per year) but is still significantly lower than that of elite rowers (1100–1200 h per year) [67,68].

Furthermore, ‘mirroring regatta demands’ refers to matching the physical load of a worst-case (i.e., highest demand) regatta in training, to ensure athletes are physically prepared for the demands of competition. Coaches spoke to explicitly matching the regatta demands using several different variables (i.e., on-water and off-water volume and intensity), including non-peak competitions/regattas, in addition to the regatta demands being innately integrated within the training process:

“I think we don’t train for the regatta specifically, you know, like we train to be fit and fast. The amount of hours that we spend makes the regatta feel easy. So it’s not a shock that you’re going to the regatta and suddenly, these type of feats... They should be so prepared that regatta shouldn’t be anything special.” [P9]

This concept is not novel and has been investigated in team sports [69,70], where similarly to sailing, demands can change depending on opponent/s and environmental conditions. This highlights the importance of prescribing and monitoring an athlete’s training to ensure that they are appropriately prepared for the demands of a worst-case scenario regatta.

Additionally, ‘tapering’ has been defined as “a progressive nonlinear reduction of the training load during a variable period of time, in an attempt to reduce the physiological and psychological stress of daily training and optimise sports performance” [71] (p. 80). Most coaches noted the importance of ‘tapering’ before a competition so that the athlete is “fresh” to perform. In addition to the current practices of reducing training volume but maintaining training intensity, some coaches also highlighted the importance of having a chance to adapt to the conditions at the regatta venue:

“But the final week usually would be at the venue, adapting to conditions. It’s more just a research week of what’s the wind? What are the wind tendencies? What are the water tendencies? Is there current? Land effects? And trying to put into place techniques that the sailor already has that are suited to the conditions at the venue.” [P3]

Finally, the last higher order theme associated with periodisation was ‘keeping the joy’, with several coaches highlighting the need to make sure there was aspects of fun and enjoyment in training along the journey. It is widely known that an athlete’s adaptation to a given stimulus may not be predictable based on just a dose-response relationship, and background psycho-emotional influences play a key part in the adaptive response [72]. This has also been emphasised by a study in which coaches outlined the importance of non-physical factors (i.e., coach-athlete relationship, psychological and emotional stress, life stress, and an athletes’ belief in the plan) on influencing training adaptation [73]. This highlights the importance of ‘keeping the joy’ within the training program to improve an athlete’s ability to adapt to the imposed demands. Furthermore, coaches’ insights from this study align with Self Determination Theory (SDT) which identifies three psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness [74,75]. To foster these, coaches could integrate SDT and principles of non-linear learning pedagogy, such as the use of modified interactive practice, questioning and cooperative learning to develop skill rather more rigid deliberate description and drilling of technique [74]. This approach enhances engagement and strengthens the coach-athlete relationship [74]. Additionally, implementing an iterative framework such as Action Research may help coaches to systematically plan, action and reflect on their ability to create an autonomy supportive learning environment which can enhance athlete adaptive motivation and improve their own coach development. Overall, ‘keeping the joy’ can be achieved by incorporating individualised, varied, and enjoyable training activities that foster a positive training environment.

Overall, the practical application of the higher order themes of periodisation such as ‘annual planning’, ‘mirroring regatta demands’, and ‘tapering’ help ILCA sailors, coaches and performance support staff optimise training programmes to peak at the right times for major competitions. Incorporating principles such as training volume management, ‘goal setting’, and ‘keeping the joy’ ensures that sailors not only prepare effectively but also maintain their enthusiasm and mental well-being throughout the rigorous demands of competitive ILCA sailing.

General dimension: Specific Training.

Training specificity centres around incorporating specific tasks of a sport to induce neuromuscular and metabolic adaptations to improve fitness/performance [76]. Four key higher order themes clustered together to establish the general dimension of specific training: ‘hiking training’, ‘boat speed’, ‘off-water training’, and ‘training mental capabilities’ (Table 3).

The first higher order theme, ‘hiking training’, was an important factor that was discussed from both an on-water and off-water (i.e., hiking bench) perspective. The emphasis on this by the majority of coaches was to be expected given the importance placed on ‘hiking ability’ in the determinants of athlete success, in addition to the focus in the existing literature [7,31,34,50,77]. Coaches often felt that on-water hiking was the best way to get better at hiking, with the hiking bench used to supplement training when conditions or training logistics didn’t allow for on-water practice.

To corroborate this theme, regatta performance (Danish National Championship) has been observed to relate strongly with mean hiking strap force (809 ± 280 N, r = 0.79, p < 0.01), and the drop off (i.e., fatigue) in hiking strap force during the second bout of a 10 min upwind trial (r = 0.82, p < 0.05) in Europe (similar to an ILCA) sailing [53]. Additionally, recent research has shown that an eight-week hiking bench training program can delay the onset of fatigue during hiking by improving hiking economy and the activation of lower limb and trunk muscles [78]. Nonetheless, further research is warranted to explore the specifics of ‘hiking training’ (both on- and off-water) and its relationship with on-water hiking and regatta performance.

‘Boat speed’ was accentuated as a key focus in specific training, with coaches dedicating up to 80% of their training time to its improvement (Table 3). This emphasis aligns with coaches’ beliefs in the crucial role of boat speed for success in ILCA sailing (i.e., as previously expressed in determinants of athlete success, general dimension: sailing the boat fast). The positive impact of ‘boat speed’ (often considered analogous to VMG) on performance is supported by studies in both competitive scenarios [10] and dinghy simulation [79], underscoring its importance in the training program.

All coaches described and highlighted aspects of ‘off-water training’ that were important to the overall training program and its specificity to different aspects of performance:

“I think cycling, it is good for the specific performance, but it’s even better for the recovery performance, just endurance in general.” [P7]

In addition to cycling, coaches also mentioned a range of other cross-training modalities such as rowing, swimming, rock climbing, water running, and resistance training. Strength and fitness sessions have been reported to be beneficial for increasing a sailor’s overall physical capabilities [2]. However, although off-water training is a crucial element to ensure athletes physical fitness does not compromise their performance, empirical research findings have not yet been shown a strong relationship between physical fitness/capabilities and regatta performance. Notably, this may be due to the contribution of a sailor’s skill and technical ability which accounts for a large (albeit difficult to quantify) part of racing performance [2].

Finally, coaches also mentioned ‘training the mental capabilities’ of their athletes. Due to the importance of cognitive skills highlighted in the determinants of athlete success, this may have been emphasised more, however, the interview guide and structure targeted areas more relevant to physical demands, which may have influenced the responses. Regardless, the importance of mental skills training in both sports performance and athlete well-being has been well established for over 40 years [39].

In conclusion, coaches and performance support staff can enhance ILCA sailing performance by designing targeted training programs that focus on the specific areas such as hiking technique, optimising boat speed, off-water training, and mental skills development.