Introduction

Ultrasound-guided renal procedures are widely performed by an interventional radiologist and are an effective and minimally invasive alternative to conventional surgery. Ultrasound-guidance is used extensively in procedures including focal and non-focal renal biopsy, cyst aspiration, nephrostomy catheter insertion, and renal tumour ablation. The advantages and benefits of this ultrasound-guided approach include a reduction in complications (including infection and blood loss), less pain (due to the small incision sites), patient convenience (minimally invasive, and often an outpatient procedure) and lower costs [1]. However, these benefits are only assured if the interventional radiology (IR) services have a highly trained workforce.

The success of IR procedures relies on the interventional radiologist’s ability to interpret ultrasound images in real-time to guide and manipulate a needle in the body to a target [2]. All ultrasound-guided procedures in the kidney require significant dexterity and cognitive decision-making skills to manage the ultrasound image, identify the target, identify the non-target organs and obstructions, optimise image quality, mitigate image artefacts, and guide the applicator or needle to the correct location in the body [3].

There is an identified need to develop simulation-based training to assist with training interventional radiologists to perform renal procedures [4]. There is an increasing demand for trained interventional radiologists in the UK and Ireland to keep staffing levels in line with European averages [1,5]. In 2020, a European-wide needs assessment was conducted to reach consensus on the technical procedures in radiology to include in simulation-based training for residents. A Delphi working group of international radiology and medical education experts highlighted the need for basic ultrasound operation as the top ranked procedure for simulation-based training, with ultrasound kidney imaging and ultrasound guidance for interventional procedures ranking third and sixth respectively [4].

The optimal implementation of simulation-based medical education (SBME) remains poorly reported and while best practice is yet to be defined, studies have begun to characterise and evaluate factors that would impact the quality of SBME curricular implementation [6,7]. The need for training identified through problem identification and a general needs assessment is recognised as the first step in the systematic design in curricular development [8]. A needs assessment involving stakeholders with contextual expertise is pertinent to problem identification and definition, and in distinguishing the critical clinical competencies associated of the intended intervention [9]. In this study, we employ a modified Delphi consensus process to define the critical procedural steps associated with ultrasound guided kidney interventional radiology biopsy procedures. Though the consensus process we aim to define the competencies in ultrasound knowledge and skills that are essential for trainees to master performing ultrasound-guided renal biopsy.

Materials and methods

This study was approved by the RCSI University of Medicine and Health Sciences Research Ethics Committee REC202207005.

Study design

Modified Delphi [10] and task analysis [11] processes were integrated in this study to identify the critical procedural steps associated with ultrasound guided kidney biopsies, see Fig 1. This dual approach enabled the lead investigator (AJD) to better understand the contextual information returned in each round of the modified Delphi process, by observing ultrasound guided kidney biopsy procedures at a clinical site.

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Fig 1. Overview of the modified Delphi process including task observation, data collection and analysis summaries.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319788.g001

Participants were not required to convene in person; instead, their anonymous responses were shared with the group in subsequent rounds for further exploration until a consensus was achieved. Data collection was performed using an online Microsoft Form. The initial list of procedural steps was generated by the panellists in the first round of data collection, in subsequent rounds these list items were rated in terms of their importance, modified for utility, and categorised into domains [12]. This data was then presented to the participants in subsequent rounds, and participants expressed their level of agreement concerning the significance of each item in relation to the procedure and consequently training, choosing from ‘Strongly Disagree,’ ‘Disagree,’ ‘Neither Agree nor Disagree,’ ‘Agree,’ and ‘Strongly Agree.’ An a priori threshold of 75% agreement between panellists was established [13]. The identified procedure domains were further interrogated by the research team to determine potential simulation strategies that could be incorporated into a SBME training intervention.

Results

Of the 42 interventional radiologists invited to complete the process, nine completed the three-round modified Delphi process (21%). The median participant age was 51 (34–63) years, with years of professional practice (outside of training) ranging from ≤1–28 years. Table 1 presents the demographic profiles of the participants in the Delphi process.

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Table 1. Participant demographic information.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319788.t001

Round 2.

In the second Delphi round, panellists reviewed the 24-item list. The results of participant rating that in round two are presented in Table 2. 23 items reached consensus, with 75% agreement, with minor additional amendments suggested from participants.

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Table 2. Participant agreement Delphi Round 2 and Round 3.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319788.t002

Item 12 from the domain Prepare Interventional Radiology Suite & Communicate with Colleagues caused dissensus, related to local policies. One participant shared the following rationale for disagreeing with this statement, “If blood pressure is too high, I would not waste time trying to get it to a normal level. I would discuss with referring doctor and just postpone the procedure until they can optimise the BP” [P4]. Another commented “High BP has always dropped with sedation” [P4]. CPC the expert IR consultant in the steering group, advised this statement should be revised based on participant feedback and was changed to “If the patient’s blood pressure exceeds 160/100mmHG after conscious sedation and antihypertensive medications, postpone the procedure and seek a medical review.” CPC also advised this is not integral to the IR kidney biopsy procedure and if dissensus remained after the third round of data collection, this item could be removed. The updated item list presented in table 2, revised to include participant feedback, was sent to the participants in the third round.

Simulation design.

AJD & CMC with the support of CPC, identified the procedure domains that could be incorporated into a simulation based educational training intervention, identifying the most effective simulation strategies, see Table 3.

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Table 3. Simulation Strategies for each procedural domain.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319788.t003

Discussion

There is a need to train large numbers of radiologists to deliver radiology procedures. The UK and Ireland are experiencing a rising demand for well-trained radiologists to align staffing levels with European averages [1,5]. A 2017 report from the Royal College of Radiologists (RCR) indicated a widening gap between the supply and demand for radiology services. The shortage of 1,000 consultants in 2017 was projected to grow to approximately 1,600 consultants by 2022, posing a significant challenge to radiology services.

Radiology training currently follows the apprenticeship model, which requires significant resources, including mentored training time, may result in longer operative times, and has the potential harm to patients. Simulation-based medical education (SBME) successfully contributes to quality health professions education [14] and radiology training [15]. It is an effective approach to acquire, retain and transfer skills to clinical practice, at a minimum equivalent to that achieved through the traditional apprenticeship model [16]. SBME in radiology training is cost effective [17], improves trainee’ skills [18] and significantly improves patient outcomes through reduction in infections [19], fewer errors and less time on the procedure [20].

Many studies have reported positively on the role of SBME in sonography, noting the benefits of this type of training; the reduction of stress and risk to the patient and improvement in skill acquisition and procedural technique in an unpressurised or “lower stakes” environment [21,22]. In this lower stakes environment, SBME contributes to the psychological aspects of IR procedure performance, including increased confidence and reduced anxiety in trainees [23].

The goal is to prepare individuals not only for the specific context training but also to enable the transfer of acquired skills to real-world scenarios [24]. While the RCR IR curriculum includes simulation as a teaching and learning methodology [25], there is no guidance on how best to implement SMBE and what approaches should be considered.

The design and implementation of SBME should address the current training needs. Often individual clinical skills are developed in isolation on task trainers in low fidelity environments. Whole-task training recognizes that effective learning involves more than just mastering individual components in isolation. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of various skills and the need to develop a holistic understanding of tasks or challenges. We must consider the full spectrum of skills that are required, as opposed to those specifically related to model based procedural activities. It is specifically important in this context for radiology trainees who are intrinsically motivated to become clinically competent [26], and whole-task training will prepare trainees for their clinical role to meet the current staffing demand, and to provide the opportunity to practice and hone the full spectrum of skills associated with a procedure.

There are a range of strategies that can be incorporated into SBME interventions including part task simulation trainers to develop and hone specific technical components of clinical tasks, high-fidelity scenarios including multiple professionals, working with simulated participants to develop communication skills, and virtual and augmented reality training. Research suggests the benefit of whole-task training, especially in routine procedures such as kidney biopsy, when the discrete clinical steps are highly integrated [27]. Whole-task training is a comprehensive approach to learning that encompasses the integrated acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. In health professions education this method goes beyond isolated procedural skill development and focuses on the coordination of qualitatively different constituent skills.

Whole-task training and competency-based assessment in health professions education relies on simulation as an approximation of clinical practice in which to develop, hone and master procedural skills. A notable finding was the similarities in the descriptions of the procedure from all nine participants, which facilitated the initial identification of the 24 items. This suggests that whole-task training would be a suitable strategy for this type of training as the participants delineated discrete clinical steps that were highly integrated [27].

The main challenge associated with the consensus building activity in this study was related to individual organisational procedures and local practice. After three rounds of data collection, item 12 If the patient’s blood pressure exceeds 160/100mmHG after conscious sedation and antihypertensive medications, postpone the procedure and seek a medical review was removed from the itemised list as it had not reached the consensus threshold. Additionally, item 21 was revised to remove specific observation frequency and vital sign limits. While local context and adherence to local guidelines is an important aspect of training for IR trainees at a specific clinical site, ultimately these factors were deemed irrelevant to a national procedural description by the steering group.

Hybrid simulations, involving simulated participants and technology would facilitate whole-task training and an evaluation of competence. Hybrid simulations also emphasize the importance of all of the skills in a particular procedure; 1) those associated with the instruments and imaging technologies, and 2) those associated with patient consultation, interprofessional collaboration, communication and teamwork. The latter grouping of skills historically referred to as “bedside manner” is routinely taught in isolation during undergraduate training and is not routinely incorporated in training in clinical practice [28].

A limitation of the study was the potential gender bias associated with an all-male Delphi panel. The authors extended the initial recruitment period to try to include additional perspectives, however the documented gender imbalance in academic medicine, especially in procedure-oriented fields such as interventional radiology resulted in all male participants [29,30]. This study was also limited in that it was not designed to be an international survey, it was an all-Ireland survey to address a national need for formalised competency-based training. Finally, there was a low response rate to the survey, 21% of the network of Interventional Radiologists engaged with the consensus building activities. While this appears to be a low response rate, it is in line with surveys of this kind, and speaks to the demands and workload of the profession; the European Society of Radiology (ESR) and the Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiological Society of Europe (CIRSE) developed an online survey in 2019, and the response rate was 8.3% [31].

Conclusion

In conclusion, this Delphi process has led to the identification of 23 competencies in a blueprint deemed essential for the development of a curriculum tailored to the training needs of radiologists performing ultrasound-guided renal biopsy. This blueprint offers a structured approach to integrating simulation-based education into radiology training programs.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge and thank the international radiologists that contributed to the Delphi process. This work would not have been possible without their willingness to participate and their enthusiasm throughout the consensus process.