Literature review.

In literature, a large number of studies have been reviewed below for the theoretical framework of the research. Studies focusing on multiculturalism, migration, cultural diversity and education [17–20] and studies addressing the cultural and linguistic effects of migration and integration issues [6, 7, 21, 22] were reviewed. In literature, forced displacement, language use and ethnic identity [8, 16], interpersonal communication and acculturation in migrants [23], multiculturalism, identity and integration [9], the emergence of multiculturalism in Turkey [24], intercultural communication debates [25], multiculturalism in Turkey [26], multiculturalism and interculturalism in Eskişehir Circassians [27] were reviewed. A large number of studies in the literature [10, 12–16, 28–31] dealing with the island of Crete and Cretan immigrants from political, historical and economic aspects directly related to the subject of this research have been reviewed and reviewed. In the literature, there has been no direct study found regarding the identity, language, and communication concerns of Cretan migrants as subcultures in Turkey. The aim of the study is to contribute to social peace and tolerance by examining the identity, language, and communication perceptions and concerns of the Crete-origin community living in Türkiye as a subculture group, within the context of multiculturalism and intercultural communication. In this direction, the problem questions of the research can be as follows:

How do Cretans living in Antalya define themselves? Do they experience anxiety in expressing their identity? What does Turkey mean to them? What does he know about his own identity and language? How do they communicate with the residents? What is their level of knowledge of Cretan? Do they see Cretan or Turkish as their mother tongue? Is Turkish or Cretan used as a language in their communication? Do they feel that they are subjected to pressure and assimilation in expressing their own identity and using their language? Do they worry about preserving, transmitting and losing their own identity and language? The data obtained conducted in line with the purpose of the study were subjected to descriptive analysis in two main themes (categories) and three sub-themes. (See Method/Analysis of data)

Self-definition, belonging, and identity concerns.

In this context, the participants were asked the following questions: “What is the identity you define yourself with?”, “What do Turkish identity, Turkish citizenship and Turkish language mean to you?”, “Do you feel uneasy about expressing your identity openly?”, “Do you feel anxiety about losing your identity?” As a result of the answers, comments and observations made by the participants, the following findings were reached regarding identity and belonging. Of the 18 participants, 9 defined themselves as “Turkish of Cretan origin”, 2 participants as “Cretan immigrants”, 2 participants as “Cretan Turkish citizens”, 3 participants as “Turkish” and 2 participants as “Cretan”. It is seen that the majority of the participants see Turkey as their homeland with the awareness that Turkey has accepted them under difficult conditions and that they want and adopt Turkish citizenship of their own free will. Some of the participants stated that they were flinched to say that they were “Cretan” in the following periods, especially when they stated that they were “Cretan” in their childhood and early youth, because they faced reaction and exclusion. As a researcher observation, it is understood from the discourse and behavior of some of the participants that; For them, they see being “Turkish” as a higher identity and being “Cretan” as a sub-identity below it. Most of the participants have stated that they are worried about losing their identity due to the difficulty in transferring Cretanity to the next generations. Some of the views of some of the participants on identity and belonging are given below as direct quotes.

“I am a Turk because my generation is Turkish. I am the third generation of first-generation Cretan immigrants. I’m proud of who I am, and I don’t mind saying it openly. The first generation was excluded, but then, after reflecting the benefits of Cretan culture, this idea was abandoned, because of the impression given by all kinds of cultures…” (P4)

“I feel like I’m Cretan. I wonder what my family has been through in its nearly 250 years of Cretan life, what kind of social change it has experienced… Turkish identity, like the identity of other countries, is to be entitled to receive Turkish citizenship… I had a certain uneasiness about revealing my identity openly in my childhood and early teenage years, and I don’t feel uneasy anymore… My concern is that these good feelings will disappear after a generation or two. I feel a responsibility to pass on that feeling to new generations.” (P1)

Mother tongue phenomenon, level of knowing the mother tongue (Cretan), desire to learn and speak, and concerns.

Findings on the theme of “mother tongue”; the following findings were obtained from the answers given to the question “What is your mother tongue?” participant opinions and from our observations.

The participants who only speak Turkish as their native language are 60%; those who speak both Turkish and Cretan as their native language are 20%; those who express their native language as only Cretan are 15%. The most remarkable finding is that some participants, despite stating that their ancestors came from Crete, and they did not know any Turkish at that time, and that they only spoke Cretan in the family, they stated that their mother tongue was “Turkish”. Apart from these, three participants answered the question “What is your mother tongue?” as “I know Turkish and little Cretan”. Some of the participants’ views on mother tongue are given below as direct quotes:

“I know Turkish and a little Cretan” (P4), “Since our roots are Anatolian, Turkish is our only language… I know Turkish and Cretan” (P3), “Turkish” (P2) “Turkish (a little Cretan)” (P1), “Turkish” (P5), “Cretan, I learned Turkish later, I improved it at school…” (P6), “My mother tongue is Cretan” (P7), “Turkish” (P17), “Turkish” (P15), “Turkish, Cretan” (P14), “My father’s Cretan-Turkish; My mother tongue is Turkish” (P13), “Turkish” (P12), “My mother tongue is Turkish” (P11), “Turkish” (P10, P18), “Turkish and Cretan; I say I have two mother tongues.” (P9).

Level of knowing of Cretan and Turkish. The following findings were obtained from the answers given to the question “What is your level of knowing of Cretan language (you, your family)” and “Do you know any Cretans in Turkey who do not speak Turkish or know little?” participant opinions and from our observations.

Although of the participant P5 stated that his parents knew very little Turkish and that they always spoke Cretan in the family, it is contradictory that he said that his “mother tongue” was Turkish. According to the statements of the participants, the family members who were the first to come from Crete and are not alive now have a Cretan mother tongue and either do not know Turkish at all or know very little; It is understood that the children of the first arrivals learned Turkish at school and became bilingual, but over time, Turkish became the dominant language and began to forget Cretan. It is seen that the children of those who know little Cretan or are on the verge of forgetting it understand a word or two in Cretan or do not know Cretan at all and speak Turkish. It is understood from the opinions of some participants who were able to speak a little bit of Cretan in their childhood that the fear of exclusion related to the language spoken by their ancestors or the language they themselves experienced during their childhood has led them to turn towards Turkish, which is the dominant language, and as a result, Cretan has remained in the background and has not been taught or transmitted. Participants, in the process when Cretan weakened and the use of Turkish increased; It is stated that while men learn Turkish earlier, women learn Turkish late. In addition, it is understood from the participant statements that for those who know Cretan, speaking Cretan is normal, natural and sincere; It was seen as forced to speak Turkish. It was possible for them to adopt Turkish later and in lower lineages. Some of the participants’ views on the level of knowing of Cretan are given below as direct quotes:

“I speak little Cretan; our upper family spoke only Cretan. In the first generation, there were people who did not speak Turkish. (A little Turkish was spoken.)” (P4), “I can speak Cretan, my father, my grandmother, my mother, my whole family spoke it very well. Now there are very few who know. In the past, 50–60 years ago, there were many people who did not speak Turkish…” (P3), “I had a low level of knowledge of Cretan, In Cretan knowing my father was good, my grandmother was very good. (It is lost from generation to generation.)” (P2). “I can speak very little Cretan (on a word-by-word basis), there are still people in my family who can speak Cretan at an intermediate level. My upper family could only speak Cretan… There is no one around me who does not speak Turkish at the moment, the language of communication is Turkish.” (P1), “I know, I speak Cretan. When I go to Crete, after 3 days I speak fluently… In the past, our elders, grandfathers, mothers and fathers knew very little Turkish, but now there are no these Cretans left…” (P5).

The need to learn and speak Cretan. The following findings were obtained from the answers given to the question “If you do not know Cretan, do you need to learn and speak Cretan?”, participant opinions and from our observations.

Participants who did not know Cretan or knew very little have been stated that they felt the need to speak Cretan and that they wanted to learn it very much. They have also been stated in their answers that they especially wanted their children and descendants to learn. In particular, the president of the Antalya Cretans Association, one of the participants, have been stated that they opened a “Cretan course” twice due to this need, but they were not successful, and stated that every language in the world should be protected and kept alive, and therefore courses for all subcultural languages should be opened not only for Cretan but also for all subcultural languages by the government.

Some of the participants’ opinions regarding the need to learn and speak Cretan are directly quoted below.

“We talk Cretan as much as we can, I didn’t take educated for this.” (P4), “Yes (I need)” (P3), “Of course (I need)” (P2), “Yes, I do. For this reason, we are planning to open a Cretan language course at the Side Crete Culture House. (P1), “I know Cretan…” (P5), “… I know, those who don’t know should learn.” (P6). “I know, and my kids want to learn.” (P7), “I know, I speak, I need it so that it is not forgotten… In the past, Cretan tales were told for weeks.” (P8), “I speak less Cretan and understand more, I would be very happy if I spoke more, I need it.” (P16), “I am interested because I am curious about the language of my ancestors.” (P15), “I like it if I speak Cretan, I feel the need to speak.” (P14), “I’d love to, but I’d like to learn.” (P13), “I understand Cretan, but I can’t speak it. I’d love to talk.” (P12).

Restriction, pressure, or uneasiness in speaking Cretan. The following findings were obtained from the answers given to the question “Do you see or feel any restriction-pressure or uneasiness in speaking Cretan?”, participant opinions and from our observations.

Participants have been stated that their parents and grandparents (Superior generation family members) experienced pressure and uneasiness rather than restriction in speaking Cretan. In addition, some participants have been stated that they experienced the same psychological pressure and uneasiness in their childhood and youth. They have been stated that their superior generation family members have been excluded, especially in the early days; They have also been stated that they were subjected to psychological pressure and restriction, especially when they spoke Cretan at school. The young Cretans have been stated that they did not experience such restrictions and uneasiness because they did not already know Cretan, but they knew from the anecdotes and memories of their superior generation family members that this had happened. Most of the participants have been stated that there is no such pressure or restriction today, and there is no uneasiness.

Some of the participants’ views on the issues of restriction, pressure or uneasiness in speaking Cretan are given below as direct quotations.

“At first, it was not restraint, but uneasiness, strangeness, and they still get angry sometimes.” (P7), “There was no pressure to speak Cretan. It happened in Kadriye.” (P8) said, “What happened to our parents has been repression. Our aunt’s daughters saw it(repression). My mother went to school, she spoke Cretan, she couldn’t speak Turkish, so they had been hit him with a ruler…” (P16), “I don’t feel it right now. Our elders feel it in the past…” (P15), “When my parents were gathering grass in Boğazak, the locals (Turks) used to say, ‘The cows have come, run away’. There were such problems, we and the next generation did not experience them.” (P14), “My elders have experienced it in the past, but now we have no restrictions at all.” (P13), “I didn’t feel any pressure. My family wasn’t pressured either. But as a child, I had a fear of being ostracized.” (P12), “Not the restriction and pressure, but my parents were a little feeling nervous, they were excluded.” (P11), “No, I was not pressured or restraint” (P10).

Concerns about protecting, keeping alive and losing Cretan language. The following findings were obtained from the answers given to the questions about protection, survival and anxiety about losing the Cretan language, the opinions of the participants and from our observations.

Although the majority of the participants did not see Cretan as their mother tongue, they have been expressed concern about the disappearance of Cretan. The majority of the participants have been stated that it was not a problem for the language of instruction in schools to be Turkish, but they wanted Cretan lessons to be held during the school period. All of the participants expressed their deep concern about the disappearance of the Cretan language and have been stated that Cretan courses can be opened by the authorities, just like the English-Russian courses given by the Ministry of National Education (Ministry of National Education) or municipalities. All of the participants have been stated that the Cretan language should be protected, that they were concerned about its loss, and that they organized Cretan courses in the associations they established. They have been stated that they want young people, especially those who do not know Cretan at all, to come to these courses and learn Cretan.

It’s about this theme; The answers given by the participants to the questions “Are you worried about the loss of Cretan Language?” and “Does the fact that the language of instruction is Turkish pose a problem for your cultural identity and the protection and survival of Cretan?” and some of their opinions are given below as direct quotes:

“No (I don’t feel worried about my mother tongue being lost). No, it is not a problem (that the official language and the mother tongue is Turkish).” (P4, P17), “I’m not worried but I hope that Cretan courses will be opened so that Cretan will continue and not be forgotten.” (P3), “Before the metropolitan law, we elected our own headman and mayor and lived according to our own customs and traditions in accordance with the laws of the Republic of Turkey, but now this freedom is partially restricted.” (P2), “I am experiencing anxiety, children do not know any (Cretan), they must learn, our culture must continue…” (P6), “It’s not a problem, but Cretan language and Cretan culture need to be preserved.” (P7), “I’m sorry, I’m worried, I’m trying to teach… It would have been great if children had been taught Cretan in addition to Turkish, but there are no more expectations now.” (P8), “Of course, we are worried, let the Cretan language not disappear, let our culture, our language come to the surface, let us be visible… In fact, if there was a lesson in Cretan and Cretan culture, I would want it in schools…” (P16). “I see my mother tongue as Turkish, but I don’t want Cretan to disappear. In fact, all the languages used in the world should not disappear. I think language is the cultural richness of the world…” (P18).

Language, communication and concerns.

Language used within the family and among Cretan neighbors. The following findings were obtained from the answers given to the question “What is the language used in communication between family members and Cretan neighbors?”, participant opinions and from our observations.

It is stated that the elders in the family speak both Cretan and Turkish among themselves, those under the age of 60 mostly communicate in Turkish and sometimes in Cretan because they know little Cretan, and those under the age of 30 speak only Turkish because they know almost no Cretan. In addition, it has been stated that those who speak Cretan feel comfortable, happy and proud when they speak Cretan among themselves. These positive feelings were also seen in the observations of the researcher, and it was witnessed that they were proud to speak Cretan, especially on special days and meetings between neighbors, and that they sang manias in Cretan with enthusiasm and excitement. Examples of manias said by P6, P9 and P11 in these conversation and mania telling activities are given below (Table 4).

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Table 4. Examples of manias sung in Cretan by P9, P6 and P11 of the participants.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314543.t004

Some of the respondents’ views on the language used in communication between family members and their Cretan neighbors are given below as direct quotes.

“For me Turkish, how those but Cretan speak to each other beautifully (in Cretan).” (P13), “We speak Turkish, but when our old Cretans meet, they speak Cretan.” (P12), “I speak Turkish with my parents, but the neighbors always spoke Cretan. Cretan was spoken secretly from the young people… .” (P11), “My parents spoke to each other in Cretan, we siblings spoke Turkish…” (P10), “We used to speak Turkish now, but we used to speak Cretan and Turkish during the parental period. The first generation did not speak Turkish…”, (P9), “Turkish” (P17).

Communication with Cretans living in Crete and the language used. The following findings were obtained from the answers given to the question “If you have communication with the Cretans in Crete, in which language do you communicate with them?”, participant opinions and from our observations.

According to the participant responses, it is understood that Cretans in Crete and English communicate with them. There are also participants to Crete and Crete who do not have any contact with Cretans. It was stated that none of the participants had any relatives or acquaintances in Crete. The striking finding here was that all of the participants longed for Crete, even though they had no relatives or acquaintances left in Crete. They were stated that when they went to Crete due to the change in the spoken language of Cretan over the years, the Cretan people were surprised because they spoke old Cretan with the people of Crete, and they were immediately asked which village they were from in Crete. They also have been stated that excursions to the island of Crete were organized, but young people did not participate in the trips. It has been stated that when they went to Crete, due to changes in the spoken language over the years, they spoke old Cretan with the locals, the Cretan people were surprised by these. They have been stated that the Cretans immediately asked which village they came from. It has also been mentioned that excursions to the island of Crete were organized, but the young people did not participate in these trips.

Some of the participants’ views on communication with Cretans living in Crete and the language used are given below as direct quotes.

“We speak Cretan” (P4, P3), “We speak English, and very little Cretan” (P2), “We have communication. We communicate using 3 languages.” (P1) “In Crete, we usually speak Cretan, and we get along very well. They say, ‘What village do you come from?’ because we speak the language that was spoken 100 years ago, they like it.” (P5), “We don’t have much communication” (P6, P8, P14, P11, P10, P17, P12).

Establishing a connection between preserving the Cretan language and maintaining identity. It’s about this theme; The following findings were obtained from the answers given to the question “Do you establish a link between knowing and keeping the Cretan language alive and protecting your identity?”, participant opinions and from our observations.

Three participants didn’t answer this question. Some of the participants have been started the question by saying that they are “Turkish”, and that Turkish is their mother tongue, then have been stated that the concepts of culture, identity and language are related to each other and have been stated that Cretan, which is a part of Cretan culture, should not be forgotten. Some of the participants, state that Cretan language should live in order not to forget Cretan identity because Cretan language and Cretan culture are one and interconnected. All of the participants who answered the question stated that there is a link between language and identity. Some of the participants’ views on the issues of establishing a link between keeping the Cretan language alive and preserving the identity are given below as direct quotes.

“It will be very nice to keep our past alive by organizing events and seminars.” (P3), “Yes, I connect. Therefore, I believe that urgent work and efforts are needed.” (P1) “Of course, I connect, language is very important, it has to try to teach.” (P7), “Language and identity are linked. There is a high bond…” (P16) “I’m connecting (between language and identity)…” (P15), “Of course, I’m connecting. Culture, language, identity are one. Cretan language and Cretan cultural identity are one…” (P14), “I would love to live knowing Cretan, when I meet those who know, my soul goes to Crete, and my Cretan identity rises in an instant.” (P13), “Of course, it’s all connected. We have tried to preserve all of them until our generation, but it is a pity that they are slowly disappearing in the generations after us.” (P12)

As a result: Due to the weakening of the Ottoman rule on the island of Crete and the turmoil that occurred on the island, migration to Anatolia began. Cretans, who came to Anatolia with forced migration and exchange, were settled especially in the coastal regions of Turkey. One of these regions is Antalya, one of the cities where multiculturalism is the most intense in the world. Of course, as in every region where multiculturalism is experienced, there have been intercultural concerns, uneasiness and discussions among Cretans and natives in Antalya. As Manea puts it, “Within individuality, there can be a conflict between how they perceive themselves and how society evaluates them” [35]. While the Cretans on one hand want to preserve, sustain, and pass on their own culture, identity, and language to future generations, they have also simultaneously tried to adapt to the culture, language, traditions, and customs of the country they live in. From the narratives and our observations, it is clear that the biggest concern is related to language and identity. It was observed that all participants, from the oldest to the youngest, interiorized and take ownership Turkish citizenship and identity, but were also proud of their Cretan identity. The same is true for language. It is among the notable findings that the participants expressed that the Cretans who first came to Anatolia did not know Turkish while stating that their mother tongue was Turkish, that there is a strong solidarity among themselves, that they desire to use Cretan in their communication, that they believe Cretan is a unique language different from Greek, and that they expressed their excitement at a song sung in Cretan.