Introduction

Child Marriage (CM) refers to the marriage of boys and girls before the age of 18, which has attracted the attention of policymakers and researchers for a long time [1]. Although the term applies to both boys and girls, girls are more commonly affected by this practice [2]. According to UNICEF, the rate of marriage under the age of 18 is 21% for young women (aged 20–24) and 3% for young men [3]. It is a harmful practice that violates children’s rights, which remains widespread despite the decline in the global prevalence of CM over the past decade. Annually, 12 million girls worldwide are married before the age of 18 [4]. Therefore, today we have approximately 650 million girls who are married under the age of 18. The highest levels of CM are observed in sub-Saharan Africa (38%), South Asia (30%), and Latin America (25%) [5].

Considerable literature has shown that CM has several harmful consequences for young women. These include loss of educational opportunities [6], intimate partner violence [7], sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) [8, 9], mental health issues [10], complications during pregnancy and childbirth [11], perinatal mortality, and infant mortality [12]. The concern about the harmful personal and social consequences of CM has prompted the international community to address the issue of ending all forms of violence against women and CM in the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) [13]. This goal aims to enhance maternal health, decrease child mortality, and advance gender equality. It is estimated that if CM is not curbed and prevented, over 150 million girls under the age of 18 will be married by 2030 [14].

Despite the increase in the average age of marriage among women in Iran [15], UNICEF reports that 17 percent of Iranian women marry before the age of 18 [16]. In Iran and around the world, numerous studies have been conducted in the field of CM. Mirzaee et al examined the viewpoints of stakeholders and found that factors such as the preservation of virginity and religious beliefs, prevention of social stigma, and legislation were the driving forces of CM in North Khorasan, Iran [17]. By examining the experiences of women who were married in childhood, Bozorgi et al showed that poverty, traditional barriers, escaping from the home environment, and satisfying the sexual needs of girls were among the effective factors in CM in Tehran [18]. Kohno’s et al study revealed that health risk behavior, family poverty, early marriage as destiny, and family disharmony are the driving factors of CM in Sarawak, Malaysia [19]. Çelik et al introduced four factors of family coercion, love, poverty, and losses suffered during the war as factors affecting the early marriage of Syrian immigrant women [20]. In examining the health promotion approach, we find that individual and interpersonal factors play a crucial role in shaping behavior. Models such as social-cognitive theory and social network theory are based on this premise. However, to date, no study has specifically addressed the individual and interpersonal factors influencing child marriage. Also, this study focuses on the marriage of children under 15 years of age, a critical transitional period in their lives. During this time, children move beyond the family unit and become immersed in a network of communication through school, their neighborhoods, and media, all of which can significantly influence their decisions. This underscores the necessity for further research in this area. Therefore, the current study aims to investigate the individual and interpersonal factors that affect CM.

Materials and methods

The ontological position adopted in this study was critical realism. This perspective suggests that reality can be understood through the examination of the human mind and socially constructed meanings [21]. This approach was chosen for this study to uncover the individual and interpersonal factors that shape the context of CM. We followed the Standards of Qualitative Research Reporting (SRQR) guidelines [22] (S1 Table). This study was conducted to answer the following question.

1. a. What are the individual factors leading to CM?
2. b. What are the interpersonal factors leading to CM?

Results

This study was conducted through semi-structured interviews with 36 eligible girls, parents, spouses, and informants. The participants included 15(41.66%) girls, 3 (8.33%) fathers, 6(16.66%) mothers, 4 (11.11%) Husband, 5 (13.88%) teachers, and 3(8.33%) counselors. More details are shown in Table 1.

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Table 1. Demographic characteristics of study participants.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313933.t001

A total of 726 codes were extracted. After merging the codes, 82 final codes were obtained. After analyzing of the data, individual and interpersonal themes were emerged. The first theme of “individual factors” consisted of biological, psychological, and demographic category with four sub-categories including insufficient cognitive and inferential development, physiological and anatomical features, facing stressful factors in life, and demographic characteristics. The second theme of “interpersonal factors” consisted of family structure with four sub-categories including traditional Parenting methods, family values, family breakup, ineffective management and problem-solving in the family, and weak social capital in the family. The category of Ineffective interactions and social support also encompass two sub-categories: Peer pressure and reference groups, and inappropriate care and support relationship between teachers and students. More details were shown in Table 2.

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Table 2. Categories, subcategories and codes obtained from the interviews.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313933.t002

Discussion

CM is a significant public health issue with numerous consequences for individuals and society. This concern has prompted the international community to address it in the 2030 sustainable development goals and to endorse policies aimed at controlling and preventing CM. Identifying the root causes of CM as the initial step can pave the way for targeted interventions in its prevention and control. this study has revealed that individual and interpersonal factors can influence CM.

Inadequate cognitive and inferential development stem from two biological and cognitive conditions and a lack of knowledge about marriage and fertility. By examining Piaget’s cognitive stages, we find that during puberty, children enter the final stage of cognitive development, which marks the onset of abstract thinking. This ability develops gradually, and children are not yet equipped to make decisions about significant life events like marriage at this stage [26]. The study of how teenagers think about marriage shows that children are immature in understanding the complex dimensions of life and do not have the ability to comprehend interpersonal relationships, emotional sensitivity, and social perspective [27]. In Naghizadeh’s et al study, instant decision-making, aimlessness in life, and childish thoughts were introduced as important factors influencing early marriage [28]. Eftikharzadeh also attributes this intellectual immaturity to aimlessness in life [29]. Some of the girls wanted to get married to fulfill their needs that were not being met by their families. The most important need expressed by the participants was emotional. Javadian et al believes that during adolescence, if the family fails to meet the financial, emotional, recreational, and sexual needs of girls, it can lead them to marry at a young age [30]. Some participants viewed love for their spouse as a reason for marriage. Several studies have reported that at times, girls marry out of love for their partner, overlooking other considerations, which may indicate their lack of intellectual maturity [31–35]. In addition to children’s biological conditions, girls’ lack of knowledge about marriage, pregnancy, life responsibilities, and life skills has been proposed as one of the factors contributing to CM, a finding that has been confirmed in other studies [19, 36, 37].

In some societies, CM is justified under the pretext of initiating menstruation, gaining reproductive power, and the ability to become a mother. Evidence also supports this assertion [34, 38–40]. Rahimi et al argues that religious and cultural norms significantly influence the development of this belief [31]. The beauty and sexual attractiveness of girls can heighten men’s desire for them. In Rahimi’s et al study, besides facial and bodily beauty, the tone of voice and dialect of girls also amplified men’s desire for young girls [31]. This inclination can instill a sense of apprehension in families that their daughters may not find suitable partners as they grow older [31]. The results showed that the presence of stressful factors in life, such as independence and limited freedom, feelings of loneliness can be a trigger for girls to marry. In several studies in Iran [31, 41], America [42], and Israel [43], restrictions on traveling and being accountable to parents were introduced as one of the reasons for marrying at a young age. Girls’ desire to choose the type of clothing and adornment and freedom from family orders was another factor for CM. What Rahimi et al refers to as "becoming a woman". In other words, the possibility of doing feminine things such as applying make-up, wearing open and formal clothes, which are unacceptable for the family [31]. The evidence shows that the difference in socio-economic development of urban and rural areas is influenced by factors such as education [44], access to the Internet, media, and information [45, 46], empowerment of girls and women [47], job opportunities [48], the formation of traditional norms and beliefs [49], and vulnerability to natural disasters [50], which provide the context for CM.

Since marriage takes place within the family, the structure of the family plays a decisive role in the type and timing of marriage. It appears that most participants in the study resided in traditional families, and this structure influenced CM in various ways. According to McMaster’s model, crucial aspects of family members’ functioning include problem-solving, communication, roles, emotional responsiveness, emotional expression, and behavior control [51]. This is overshadowed by the traditional nature of the family. Some experts argue that families with a traditional structure exhibit poor performance [52] and encounter challenges in emotional matters, often struggling with the problem-solving process. In these families, communication is neglected, role assignments and responses are unclear [53]. Although these opinions cannot be definitively accepted, their role cannot be denied either.

In such a structure, girls’ social relations are limited, and girls are prepared from childhood to play traditional roles in the family, such as cooking and taking care of children. It seems that the continuation of the traditional function in the family originates from the perceived place of women and girls in the culture of societies. Still, in areas like Iran [41], Bangladesh [54], Sudan [55], and Uganda [39], social, economic, and livelihood issues are based on the traditional "mechanical society. In this context, male characters are considered the engine of economic progress, livelihood, and security, while female roles are limited to domestic work and childbirth to ensure the continuation of the family generation.

Traditional beliefs and the fear of girls getting involved in romantic relationships lead parents to consent to marrying girls at a young age in order to attain peace of mind and alleviate worries. They hold the belief that post-marriage, they are no longer accountable for their daughters. This notion has been supported by other studies as well [41, 54, 56]. These convictions are so entrenched that they can impede girls’ education. In reality, excluding girls from school is a tactic to uphold cultural values and family honor, with priority given to this over the ability to afford education [41, 57–59]. This issue can be viewed as a reflection of the family’s ineffectiveness in managing and resolving the problem. This operational method may be linked to parents’ limited education and awareness [60, 61]. Participants mentioned that parents’ occupations and the time spent at home can also influence the decision to marry off girls. Given that parents in rural areas are primarily engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry, they naturally have less time at home. Other studies have indicated that girls whose parents are farmers are more prone to early marriage. Farmers typically have lower education and socioeconomic status, which can contribute to early marriage among girls [44, 62]. In addition to this, factors such as divorce, addiction, and having imprisoned parents, which weaken and sometimes collapse the structure and cohesion of the family, expose children to early marriage. Studies also support this finding [29, 41].

After primary relationships with parents, students need teachers’ support in secondary relationships. These relationships play a decisive role in children’s psychological well-being and have become one of the most important and effective areas of social support. Therefore, it is important for teachers to be careful in their relationships with students and to understand their issues and problems [63, 64]. However, the education system has not made much progress in responding to this need of students [65]. Inefficiency of school counselors, lack of motivation of teachers, weakness in their responsibility diminish the protective role of the school against the damage to students. In Momeni’s et al study, the students expressed characteristics such as ability in human relations, appropriate personality traits, proper guidance and counseling, job commitment, spending time with the student as the characteristics of a supportive teacher. Failure to form supportive relationships can cause disinterest in studies and provide grounds for dropping out of school [66].

Modern approaches to adolescence emphasize that the positive and negative development of adolescents is influenced by multifaceted relationships. These relationships include the individual’s biological and psychological characteristics on one hand, and family, culture, physical, and ecological environment on the other hand. After the family, which serves as the primary source of education and care, teenagers strive to establish relationships beyond the family, particularly among friends. In many cases, peers and friends act as guides for social behavior encourage girls to marry, the evidence also supports this finding [32, 34, 67], in addition to peers, relatives [32, 42, 68]. Media advertisements [41] and leaders’ speeches [69] are effective in persuading CM.

Young girls who marry early often have a limited communication network and lack a strong support system. They receive insufficient support from their families, schools, and communities, and peer support is also lacking. Given the significant amount of time students spend in school, the role of educational institutions in fostering a communication and support network should not be overlooked. Teachers play a crucial role by establishing close and friendly relationships with their students, which enables them to positively influence students’ decisions and behaviors. Furthermore, schools serve as a bridge between students and their families, helping to identify and address communication gaps. It is essential to empower parents and encourage family participation in finding appropriate solutions, including functions that schools can effectively manage.

The girls’ support network extends beyond the school and is strengthened by engaging the local community, launching local campaigns [70], and involving religious leaders [71]. These leaders play a crucial role in transforming cultural and social norms. In addition to influencing these norms and advocating for girls, popular campaigns, in collaboration with religious leaders, can encourage government involvement and secure additional funding to address the needs of girls and support their empowerment. Engaging community members is essential for identifying effective solutions that benefit the local population. Furthermore, the involvement of men and boys, who hold significant social power in traditional cultures, should not be overlooked [72]. Government agencies and non-governmental organizations can also contribute to this collective effort by supporting orphaned and single-parent children, expanding educational opportunities, and promoting local initiative.It is evident that the implementation of these programs necessitates national policies and a revision of existing laws. For instance, in Iran, Article 1041 of the Civil Code permits the marriage of a girl before she reaches the age of 13 and a boy before he turns 15, provided that they obtain permission from a guardian and that the marriage is deemed expedient by a competent court. The legality of child marriage under the age of 15 encourages families to marry off their children. There are two critical issues within this law that require revision. First, the age of marriage is not clearly defined; according to the law regarding maturity, girls under the age of 13 can also be married. Second, the requirement for parental permission and the court’s determination of expediency to issue a marriage license raises concerns. In 30 countries around the world, a significant flaw exists in the legal framework regarding the marriage of girls under the age of 18, which is often arranged with parental consent [73]. This issue undermines the deterrent effect of the law. For instance, current legislation perpetuates a cultural belief that marriage serves as a means to protect girls from premarital sex [74]. Furthermore, when parents arrange early marriages for financial gain, it effectively legitimizes a harmful practice [75]. Therefore, establishing a legal age limit for marriage and revising existing laws could be effective solutions to reduce child marriage. Additionally, expanding research to investigate various aspects of child marriage and promoting evidence-based decision-making can facilitate the implementation of targeted interventions [76].

Conclusion

The results indicate that physiological, psychological, and demographic characteristics are the most significant factors contributing to child marriage at the individual level. At the interpersonal level, family structure, ineffective interactions, and a lack of social support are the primary influences. Given that child marriage is a complex issue shaped by various factors, it is essential to develop a tailored set of strategies to address it, taking into account the cultural and contextual conditions of each society. Changes in legal frameworks can play a crucial role in preventing early marriages. Evidence suggests that in countries where the minimum legal age for marriage is below 18, nearly 100 million girls remain unprotected by national laws against child marriage [73]. Changes in laws, combined with educational campaigns, can raise awareness about the negative effects of child marriage [77]. Additionally, empowering local communities through robust support networks can help identify at-risk girls and provide the necessary resources to prevent early marriages. By engaging community leaders and utilizing social media platforms, these networks can foster a more informed and active community [78].

Supporting information

Acknowledgments

The authors thank all the participants who helped us find these results.