https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2711-4337
Figures
Abstract
This study was performed to determine the influence of fish oil, an omega-3 fatty acids source, supplemented to diets of goats throughout all stages of gestation on the growth and milk production of weaned female kids. Eighty German Fawn (75%) x Hair (25%) crossbred goats were randomly assigned to treatment (fish oil, FiO group) and control (Rumen protected fat, RPF group) groups during the first half of pregnancy. Subsequently, the FiO group was further allocated into FiO-FiO and FiO-RPF subgroups and RPF group was further divided into RPF-FiO and RPF-RPF subgroups containing 20 goats in each during the second half of pregnancy. The growth and feed intake of 41 female kids (aged 75.1 ± 6.73 days, with a mean live weight of 11.6 ± 3.00 kg) were recorded for a 98 day post-weaning, In the continuation of the study, live weight changes, milk yield and composition of young female goats from mating to the second month of lactation and the growth of female kids until weaning were studied for a total of 210 days. Maternal nutrition slightly influenced the live weight gain of female kids over a 98-day investigation period (p = 0.070). When growth performance was considered, a higher feed conversion efficiency of female offspring was determined in RPF-FiO (5.52) treatment group compare to female kids in other treatment groups (p = 0.086). However, the maternal feeding system significantly affected live weight in the RPF-FiO treatment group during the mating period (P = 0.054). Concerning the feed intake, maternal nutrition significantly affected the feed intake of female kids (p < 0.01) with the highest feed consumption in the FiO-RPF group. The findings of this study have shown that fish oil enriched diet given to goats during gestation improved daily live weight changes and total live weight gain of female kids despite the initial disadvantage after weaning. At mating time, the live weight of young female goats in the RPF-FiO treatment group, which exhibited the highest feed conversion ratio during the 98-day study, was higher than the remaining treatment groups. Maternal nutrition had no effect on milk yield or milk components in young goats during lactation. Young female goats born to dams in the FiO-RPF group showed better performance than the other groups regarding live weight performance of their offspring on 56th day postpartum.
Citation: Erez I, Serbester U (2024) Effects of prenatal fish oil supplementation on the development and performance of female kids after weaning. PLoS ONE 19(9): e0310220. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310220
Editor: Arda Yildirim, Tokat Gaziosmanpaşa University: Tokat Gaziosmanpasa Universitesi, TÜRKIYE
Received: March 18, 2024; Accepted: August 27, 2024; Published: September 11, 2024
Copyright: © 2024 Erez, Serbester. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.
Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Introduction
Gestational factors can have effects that can lead to changes in production performance such as offspring development, reproduction and milk yield [1–3]. From the embryonic period to birth, there may be critical periods of increased tissue growth in the development of the offspring. [4]. Prenatal nutrition plays a significant role in placental-fetal development, and has a long-lasting impact on the reproductive function, mammary gland, and overall performance of offspring [5,6]. The nutrient and hormonal environment of the developing and growing fetus during these critical periods can influence expression in the fetal genome, with lifelong consequences [7]. It is known that prenatal feeding can alter epigenetic status and affect gene expression in the fetal genome [8]. Maternal feeding has been shown to influence offspring’s first and second lactation milk production as well as mammary gland development during the prenatal period [9,10]. Many fetal hormones are regulated by nutrition and this includes the IGFs and their binding proteins and insulin [11]. Besides, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) belong to the family of steroid receptors and are fatty acid- activated nuclear transcription factors which are critical regulators of development and physiological function of the feto-placental unit [12]. Fatty acids, which are active membrane constituents, play crucial roles in cellular, tissue function development and signal transduction [13,14]. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) supplementation during pregnancy influences the fatty acid (FA) composition of some of the organs which potentially influence the neonatal fat and glucose metabolism [15].
The effects of lipids added into feed on postnatal growth performance [16], development of the reproductive system [17], milk production [18] and composition [18,19] have been investigated in farm animals.
Omega 3 fatty acids are reported to be incorporated into nerve membranes, increase protein expression at synapses, stabilize synapse regions and do this by modulating transcription factors such as PPARs [20]. Omega-3 PUFA, particularly, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; C20:5 n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; C22:6 n-3), which are abundantly available in Salmon fish oil, offer a novel approach for modulating livestock metabolism [21,22]. It is thought that fish oil, which is a source of omega 3 fatty acids, can meet the increased long-chain fatty acid requirements during pregnancy and the changes that these fatty acids will cause in maternal and fetal tissues may significantly change the performance of the offspring in multiparous goats.
In the literature, there are insufficient studies on the critical effects of maternal feeding and omega-3 fatty acids on the periods of pregnancy and the adult performance of the offspring. Previous studies investigating the impact with n-3 PUFA added to dam rations for the development of their offspring have predominantly been performed in cattle and sheep for a limited timeframe, specifically during the prenatal and postpartum phases, and up to the weaning period [23,24]. However, very limited studies were carried out in goats [25]. To the best of the authors’ know, no study has explored the influence of fish oil that was supplemented to the maternal diet of goats on the development and performance of the female kids after weaning. Thus, we hypothesize that supplementing the maternal ration with fish oil throughout all stages of gestation in goats may modify the growth and milk production of female offspring. The fact that the present study aims to investigate the "intergenerational effect" of omega-3 fatty acids is one of the most important aspects of the study and it is evaluated that it will make important contributions to fill the gap in this field.
Material and methods
Animals, management and study design
In this study, all animals were managed and cared for according to University of Cukurova Institutional Animal Ethics Committee (Protocol number: 2–4, 2015). 80 German Fawn (75%) x Hair (25%) crossbred goats with a live weight of 47.9±3.97 kg (mean±standard deviation), aged between 2–5 years, were synchronised in heat and mating protocol was applied. The gestation period of goats can be divided into two distinct stages. The initial stage, termed the "first phase," extends from the moment of mating until the 75th day of pregnancy. The second phase encompasses the period from the 76th day of gestation to parturition.
Initially, the does were randomly allocated into two groups consisting of 40 animals in each. The first group was fed fish oil during the first half of gestation (FiO group) and the second group (control) was provided with rumen protected fat (RPF group). Each group was then randomly assigned into two equal subgroups. The goats in FO group, were fed either fish oil [FiO-FiO group (n = 20)] or fish oil and protected fat [FiO-RPF group (n = 20)] in the second half of gestation. The goats in RPF group, after being divided into two subgroups, were fed similarly to the second half of the pregnancy of the FiO group [RPF-FiO group (n = 20) and RPF-RPF group (n = 20)]. After weaning, 41, 82.8-day old and weighing 11.97 kg female kids were included in the study based on the nutrition program outlined above (FiO-FiO group; n = 11, FiO-RPF group; n = 5, RPF-FiO group; n = 17, and RPF-RPF group; n = 8). Ingredients of the goat ration including saturated fat or fish oil were presented in Table 1. Nutrient requirements of goats during this period were taken from NRC [26]. Total mixed feeding (TMR) system will be applied to meet this nutrient requirement. The roughage:mixed feed ratio in the total mixture is 70:30. Shredded alfalfa hay, corn silage and wheat straw were used as roughage. The formulation of mixed feeds is made in a special feed factory. During the production phase, saturated fat in fractionated form was used in the Saturated Fat Group compound feed, and 8% from fish oil origin Salmon liquid oil source, which is rich in omega-3 fatty acids, was used in the Fish Oil group compound feed. This level was realized as 2.4% in TMR (30% x 8% = 2.4% since the mixed feed ratio in TMR is 30%). In studies using sheep and goats, the amount of fish oil consumed is 20–50 g/day [27–30]. The dry matter consumption of the project material goats was approximately 1.5 kg/day and they consumed 0.45 kg/day of mixed feed within the TMR (roughage:mixed feed ratio of 70:30). Under these conditions, approximately 36 g/day was consumed from the oil source of fish oil origin. On the other hand, considering that fish oil contains an average of 20% omega-3 fatty acid group, 7 g/day is provided from omega-3 fatty acid group. Total omega-3 fatty acid consumption was approximately 8–10 g/day, with 1–2 g/day provided by the basal diet [28,31]. Another important point is that by regulating the fat levels similarly in the groups, the mixed feed raw material composition and starch levels are similar, thus ensuring a healthier isocaloric and isonitrogenic composition.
Each group of kids was housed in a 6 m x 12 m (width x length) enclosure. A three weeks adaptation period was allowed to the kids prior to treatment. Live weights of female kids were recorded as the live weights per trial on day 14 after weaning. During 57-day weaning period, kids were fed alfalfa as coarse fodder and offspring starter feed as concentrate feed ad libitum. Female kids were fed a total mixed ration (TMR) of concentrated feed and alfalfa hay for six months during the growth performance period. The proportion of concentrates to roughage in the total mixed ration was 85:15. Due to the fact that environmental factors are increasing day by day and epigenetic effects can be affected [32], female kids were fed high level concentrate feed (85:15) in the early period and their performances were evaluated. The kids were fed twice a day. The feeds were offered twice a day at 8.00 am and 16.00 pm as TMR. Tables 2 and 3 present the concentrated feed and TMR used including ingredients and nutritional descriptions. The kids were provided clean water ad libitum. Female kids were provided TMR in group enclaves on the farm after the age of six months. Four measurements of live weight were taken at 2-week intervals after birth. Until the mating season, their development was determined solely by monthly live weight measurements. Milk data were collected through a series of four tests administered at 2-weekly intervals, commencing in the fourth week of lactation.
Individual live weights were determined before morning feeding. The weights of female kids were individually measured on a weekly basis. Individual live weight of doeling was measured from the mating and continued with monthly intervals until birth and then two-weekly intervals from birth to the end of the second month of suckling. Live weight gains was calculated by taking the difference between the animal’s current and previous weights and dividing this figure by the number of days between two measurements.
In this study, feed bags containing 45 kg of TMR comprising concentrated feed and dry alfalfa hay were used for feed consumption calculation. On day of feed consumption calculation, the feed left in the feeders, dropped around the feeder and the remaining feed in the bag was recorded. Then, sum of these values was subtracted from the initial weight of 45 kg to obtain the daily food consumption.
Data were collected throughout the study, spanning 210 days for the evaluation of breeding efficiency of young female goats from mating to the second month of lactation. For this purpose, we closely monitored alterations in total live weight, milk production and composition of the young female goats from mating until the second month of lactation. Additionally, we observed the growth and progress of the offspring until weaning.
To determine daily milk yield, the procedure involved separating kids from their mothers at 5.00 a.m., followed by milk monitoring at 05.00 p.m. Following lactation control, the kids were allowed to stay with their mothers. Kids were separated from their mothers again in the next day at 5.00 p.m., and milk control was performed at 5.00 a.m. The daily milk yield was determined by obtaining milk samples in the morning and evening. On days of milk controls, milk samples were collected in 50-ml skirted containers (Corning, England) for milk composition analysis. After heating each tube up to +40°C in a water bath, they were mixed together carefully.
Kids were kept with their mothers, with the exception of the days when the milk production of the mothers was measured.
Chemical analysis of the diet
Roughage and mixed feed samples were analyzed for dry matter, crude protein, crude oil and crude ash according to methods outlined by AOAC [33], analyses of neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) were analyzed by using a filter bag on a fiber analyzer (Ankom-200 Fiber Analyzer, ANKOM Technology Corp., New York, USA). According to the method indicated by Vansoest et al. [34], temperature resistant amylase and sodium sulfite were used in this technique.
Statistical analysis
Data were compiled in spreadsheets (Excel 2016; Microsoft, Redmond, WA), and subsequently analyzed using SAS (version 9.4; SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). General linear mixed models with repeated measures were employed for the analyses, utilizing the MIXED procedure of SAS [35]. Least square means were estimated using the restricted maximum likelihood method. The statistical model incorporated the effects of treatment, time, and treatment × time (see S1 Appendix). The covariance structure used to analyze the repeated measures was a first-order heterogeneous autoregressive structure [35–37]. In all statistical analyses, when the p value less than 0.05 was considered as significant. When the p value were between 0.05 and 0.10 a trend was recognized as increasing or decreasing.
In tables, the least square means and pooled standard errors generated for these means were used. The pooled standard errors were calculated by multiplying the ’n’ of each group by its standard error, determining the grand total and then dividing this value by the total number of ’n’. When the p value was less than 0.05, means were compared using Tukey’s multiple comparison test.
Results
The live weight at fourteen days after weaning was assumed to be the trial starting live weight of the kids. When comparing the groups based on this parameter, there was no significant difference (p > 0.05, Table 4, data were given in S2 Appendix). Female kids of goats that received protected fat during gestation exhibited the highest live weight (12.2 kg). In contrast, female kids of goats fed the fish oil diet during pregnancy had the lowest live weight (10.5 kg).
Statistically significant difference was not determined in live weights of the groups (p > 0.05) between the time of weaning and the age of six months. The live weights of female kids between the RPF-RPF, FiO-FiO, and FiO-RPF groups were highly similar during this period (19.3 kg, 19.1 kg, and 19.3 kg, respectively). However, the RPF-FiO group exhibited a lower live weight (17.6 kg). A statistical difference trend (p = 0.070) was observed between the live weights gained by the female kids from approximately 2.5 months of age, (initial age at the beginning of the experiment) and 6 months of age. Similarly, in the daily live weight gain calculated for this period, the female kids in the RPF-FiO treatment group had the lowest value, while the other groups had values close to each other (P = 0.073). The feed intake of female kids varied significantly (P < 0.01) across the RPF-RPF, FiO-FiO, and FiO-RPF groups. The study indicated that female kids from the FiO-RPF group exhibited the highest feed consumption rate (809 g/day), while those from the RPF-FiO group had the lowest feed consumption rate (570.8 g/day). Both month and Mother Feed × Month were determined to have a statistically significant effect on feed consumption (p < 0.01 for both). The total feed consumption of female kids from the start of the experiment until six months of age was also influenced by the maternal feeding method (p < 0.01). Female kids from the FiO-RPF group had the highest feed consumption, averaging 79.2 kg, while those from the RPF-FiO group had the lowest feed consumption, averaging 58.2 kg.
No significant differences were found between the groups regarding feed conversion ratio (p > 0.05).The findings of this study revealed that female kids born to dam goats in the RPF-FiO group exhibited the most optimal feed conversion ratio (5.52), while those born to goats in FiO-RPF group demonstrated the least favorable ratio (6.77) (p = 0.086).
Table 5 (data were given in S3 Appendix) presents the live weights of young female goats during the period between mating and parturition. A significant difference (p = 0.054) in live weights was detected during this period. Young female goats born to goats in the RPF-FiO treatment group gained the highest weight (51.3 kg), while those born to goats in the FiO-FiO treatment group gained the least weight (46.9 kg). However, no significant difference was observed between the groups considering daily live weight gain (p > 0.05). On average, the groups gained 12 kg of body weight from mating to parturition with an average of 88 grams of body weight gain per day.
Statistically significant differences were not determined between treatment groups for duration of pregnancy, birth weight and milk production during weeks 2, 4, 6 and 8 (p > 0.05 for all variables). Both groups experienced an average weight loss of 2.56 kg from birth until the 56th day of lactation. The average milk yield of treatment groups was 1.34 kg/day, and it was determined that maternal during gestation did not influence the milk yield of goats (p > 0.05, Table 6, data were given in S4 Appendix). Additionally, no statistically significant effect of maternal nutrition on milk composition was found (p > 0.05, Table 7, data were given in S5 and S6 Appendices).
A total of 59 offspring were born as a result of the breeding and mating of female young goats whose mothers had consumed fish oil at various stages of their pregnancies, with 31 females and 28 males. Two infants lost their lives shortly after birth, while the remaining 57 were successfully reared. In terms of birth weight, among groups was not found to be important difference (p > 0.05, Table 8, data were given in S7 Appendix). The average birth weight was 3.35 kg. On day 56 of the investigation, important difference (p < 0.05) was found among live weight of treatment groups. The FiO-RPF group had the highest value (9.20 kg), while the FiO-FiO group had the lowest value (7.25 kg).
Discussion
Farmers of livestock are continually seeking innovative methods to enhance the health, productivity and development of their animals [36]. Feeding management of pregnant dams is crucial for food production due to its potential permanent effect on growth performance and health, offering a viable option for enhancing offspring productivity [37]. Omega-3 (PUFAs) can transmit the effects of embryonic development to adult cells through various mechanisms, including gene expression modification, cell membrane fluidity modification, receptor expression effects, and nuclear receptor activation [38–40]. Lopes et al. [41] have demonstrated that PUFAs positively affected developmental performance. In ruminants, fatty acid supplementation during gestation may affect the birth weight and development rate of progeny prior to and after weaning [42,43].
In the present study, initial live weights of female kids were close in all of the treatment groups (p>0.05) similar to the findings of Oviedo-Ojeda et al. [44] who found that pre-weaning (from birth to weaning) lamb growth (live weight and mean daily weight gain) was similar between the treatment groups of sheep fed either calcium salts enriched with monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) or EPA + DHA. Similarly, one study carried out by Coleman et al. [45]pregnant ewes fed with calcium salts supplemented with MUFA or EPA + DHA had no influence on body weight changes of lambs after weaning. However, in accordance with previous investigations, Mahboub et al. [42] and Carranza-Martin et al. [43] claimed that fish oil administration in the later stages of pregnancy caused greater lamb birth weight. Supplementing beef cows in late pregnancy with PUFA calcium salts enhanced the improvement of their offspring in the study of Marques et al. [46]. Nickles et al. [47] determined greater weaning live weight as well as the rate of weight gain per day in offspring fed higher concentrations of EPA and DHA during late gestation. Santos et al. [18] observed higher growth performance, birth weight and body condition in dairy cow calves fed PUFA near the end of gestation. However, in accordance with our study, Rosa-Velazquez et al. [24] found that the live weights of lambs delivered from ewes received with n-3 fatty acids at the last stages of pregnancy at 30 and 60 days were similar to the live weights of lambs in the control group. Similarly, supplementation of ewes with lipids in the final pregnancy period did not affect the growth of offspring [36]. Likewise, according to Annett et al. [28], adding fish oil supplement into the nutrition of 55 crossbred ewes during the latter stages of pregnancy had no effect on live weight gain of lambs. Our research also showed that the fish oil group, which started off with the lowest mean live weight (10.50 kg), caught up to the other groups’ live weight by the end of the 6-month growth performance trial. This effect might be caused by higher levels of amino acid transporter mRNA and protein expression in the offspring of pregnant dams exposed to fish oil as well as higher DNA methylation in areas related to the small intestine [48].
The effects of omega-3 PUFA added to diets at the time of gestation on the performance-related outcomes of progeny were examined in ruminant animal species [24]. Furthermore, most of the previous studies concentrated on newborn weight and its impact on how the offspring perform throughout the suckling stage of development. To our understanding, this study represents the first attempt to examine the effect of incorporating omega-3 oil-derived fish oil in the ration of maternal goats on the developmental performance of their kids after weaning. In addition, at weaning and 6 months of age, no difference was observed for live weights among groups (p > 0.05). A notable statistical distinction (p = 0.070) was identified in the trend level of live weights of female kids between the ages of 2.5 and 6 months, which corresponds to the recommended age for initiating the experiment. The female kids of goats fed RPF-FiO had the lowest live weights, whereas the female kids in the RPF-RPF, FiO-FiO and FiO-RPF groups had similar live weights. Similarly, female kids supplemented with RPF-FiO had the lowest daily body weight gain, whereas female kids in the RPF-RPF, FiO-FiO and FiO-RPF groups had similar daily body weight gains (p = 0.073). In accordance with our study, Garcia et al. [16] reported that prenatal supplementation with saturated fatty acids (SFA) during late pregnancy enhanced the average daily gain of calves (0.50 vs. 0.46 kg/day). But, Nickles et al. [47] found that omega-3 fatty acid supplementation throughout the final stages of pregnancy improved offspring performance. Marques et al. [46] also reported elevated average daily gain levels throughout both the growing and finishing phases of life in calves born to cows fed polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in their final trimester. On the other hand, Coleman et al. [43] found that maternal nutrition enriched with fish oil in the latter days of pregnancy had no effect regarding the performance and metabolism of weaned lambs.
In the presented study, the quantity of feed consumed by female kids was significant (p < 0.01). Female kids born to goats in the FiO-RPF group had the highest feed intake (809 g/day), whereas female kids born to goats in the RPF-FiO group had the lowest feed consumption (570.8 g/day). However, according to Oviedo-Ojeda et al. [44], a greater dry matter intake was found in lambs born to dams fed monounsaturated fatty acid supplemented diet during the early stages of pregnancy. Garcia et al. [16], the addition of saturated fatty acids to the diet of cows during the later stages of pregnancy resulted in a notable increase in grain consumption among calves between 2 and 3 months of age. In research completed by Carranza-Martin et al. [43], the study showed that offspring born to dams supplemented with 0.39% calcium salts and palmitic fatty acids in the final 50 days of gestation had elevated dry matter intake (p < 0.01). Unlike Nickles et al. [47], who determined that when omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA) intake increased in late pregnancy, lamb performance also increased with increasing dry matter intake. In our study, the total amount of feed consumed by female kids from the beginning of the experiment to 180 days of age was also impacted by maternal feeding (p < 0.01). The female kids born to goats in the FiO-RPF group consumed more feed (79.2 kg) than the female kids born to goats in the RPF-FiO group (58.2 kg). Alterations in the levels of hypothalamic neuropeptides have been associated with accelerated elevations in body weight gain in heifers during their formative years [49]. Appropriate fatty acid exposure during pregnancy may program the expression of several hypothalamic neuropeptides [50]. Saturated fatty acid sources may play a function in regulating food consumption [51]. In our study, the treatment group consisting of female kids fed fish oil as a supplement during the initial period of pregnancy and protected fat during the last period of pregnancy exhibited the greatest feed intake. Although, feed conversion ratio was similar in treatment groups (p > 0.05), the highest feed efficiency was observed in female offspring born to goats in the RPF-FiO group (5.52), whereas the lowest value was observed in female offspring born to goats in the FiO-RPF group (p = 0.086).
The differences (p = 0.054) between the treatment groups concerning the live weights of the developing young goats at the mating period at a tendency level. Young female goats born to goats in the RPF-FiO treatment group exhibited the highest live weight (51.3 kg), while young female goats born to dams in the FiO-FiO treatment group had the lowest live weight (46.9 kg) compared to the live weights of young female goats born to dams in the RPF-RPF treatment group (48.7 kg), and young female goats born to dams in the FiO-RPF treatment group (47.3 kg). In our study, it was observed that the RPF-FiO group showed the most favorable feed conversion rate during the six-month age period after weaning, concurrently the highest live weight during the mating period. Oviedo-Ojeda et al. [44] also found that the dry matter intake of lambs fed monounsaturated fatty acids was higher than that of lambs fed EPA and DHA (p < 0.01). In addition, the RPF-FiO treatment group, which had the highest live weight during the mating period, was thought to consume more dry matter than the other groups.
Addition of fish oil did not resulted in differences between groups regarding the duration of gestation, weight at parturition, and live weight during weeks 2, 4, 6, and 8 of lactation (p > 0.05). In all groups, daily milk production was 1.34 kg, and maternal feeding did not significantly affect the milk production (p > 0.05). Goats born to dams in the RPF-FiO group produced the most milk (1.42 kg/day) and lowest in goats born to dams in the FiO-RPF group (1.25 kg/day). According to a study by Garcia et al. [52], heifers born to fat-supplemented dams during late pregnancy produced an average of 9100 kg of milk (p = 0.09) versus 8415 kg (p = 0.10).
There are limited in vivo studies investigating the influence of different dietary regimens on mammary gland activity [53]. Kenyon and Blair [54] observed that maternal nutrition influences the growth of fetal mammary glands and milk production in subsequent generations. According to Van der Linden et al. [10], maternal nutrition influences offspring milk yield performance when an ad libitum or limited feeding regimen is applied to treatment groups separated into two sections based on their weight between the 21th and 140th days of pregnancy. Adiletta et al. [55] demonstrated that maternal ad libitum feeding influences fetal mammary gland development. Blair et al. [9] determined that the net energy and fat output of milk in the lactation milk yield period of newborn females altered with the feeding level of the dam. Changes in the metabolic activities and expression of genes responsible for proliferation and differentiation in sheep mammary epithelial cells have been linked to maternal nutrition [56]. Epigenetic modifications in the udder, which influence gene regulation, have been demonstrated to be affected by dietary fatty acids like omega-3 in pigs and goats, resulting in changes in milk composition [57]. Garcia et al. [52] reported that maternal lipid supplementation in the late uterine period affected milk and milk protein production in the first lactation period of heifers positively. In the present study, although, the young female goats born to dams in the RPF-FiO group exhibited the greatest milk yield (1.42 kg/day), the average milk production of the groups was 1.34 kg/day. Determination of 1.34 kg/day average milk yield suggested that gestational feeding of the dams did not have a statistically significant impact for milk production (p > 0.05). Concentrations of milk constituents such as milk solids, fat, protein, lactose, casein and urea-N, which make up the milk composition, were not affected by the fish oil given to the dam during pregnancy (p > 0.05).
On day 56 of the study, the groups differed significantly in terms of live weight (p < 0.05). The group FiO-RPF had the greatest value for this variable (9.20 kg), while the group FiO-FiO had the lowest value (7.25 kg). The female kids of the FiO-FiO group receiving the treatment demonstrated the lowest live weight at both the weaning stage (10.5 kg) and the mating stage (44.9 kg). According to Paten et al. [56], the mother’s weight did not have an impact on the offspring’s body weight. Notably intriguing is the fact that the offspring of the FiO-RPF group dam had a higher feed intake during the growth period compared to the offspring in the other groups.
Female kids born to dams supplemented with fish oil to the maternal ration during pregnancy showed a favourable performance during the growth period. Female kids born to dams supplemented with fish oil in the maternal ration during late pregnancy showed a favourable performance until the mating period. The F2 progeny obtained from the broodstock to which fish oil was added to the maternal diet at the first stage of gestation showed higher performance than the other treatment groups in terms of live weight at the 56th day after birth. The performance of female kids born to dams fed fish oil to the maternal ration at different stages of gestation may positively affect the performance in the early and adult period. In order to better understand this effect, some gene expression (IGF, PPARs) analyses from samples taken from different tissues of the offspring during pregnancy and after birth will contribute. The present study was limited to performance data.
Supporting information
S1 Appendix. The document showing statistical analysis.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310220.s002
(PDF)
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