Background

Violence is the intentional use of physical force or power, whether threatened or actual, against another person, which results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, or psychological harm. While the majority of violence survivors are girls and women, boys and men can also be victims [1]. Sexual violence (SV) is defined as any sexual act or attempt carried out without the individual’s consent, in any setting. It is common among people living in areas of insecurity, social disparity, cultural influences, lack of power, poverty, behavioural disturbances, and mental instability. Common forms of sexual violence include threats of rape, attempted rape, completed rape, sexual harassment, and unwanted sexual contact [1–3]. SV causes serious short- and long-term health problems for victims, including physical injuries, mental health issues, sexual and reproductive problems, unwanted pregnancy, unsafe abortion, and school dropouts [4,5]. Minority and marginalized women, who are among the least protected groups under national and international law, are particularly vulnerable to all forms of violence. Housemaids, being one of the most marginalized groups due to the nature of their work, economic status, and educational level, are at a high risk of sexual violence [6–9].

There are 75.6 million domestic workers worldwide, with 76% being female. Most domestic employees are directly employed by households, with over half (55%) coming from Latin America, the Caribbean, and East and Southeast Asia. Nearly 90% of domestic workers globally are employed informally and lack sufficient social or labor protections, making them more vulnerable to various types of violence, including physical abuse, intimidation, threats, bullying, sexual assault, and harassment. Despite significant global and national efforts to address violence, the burden of sexual violence among housemaids remains under-researched. Worldwide, 6% of women report being victims of non-partner sexual violence, with a similar prevalence in sub-Saharan nations and 10% of women in Ethiopia experiencing sexual violence at some point in their lives. All women and girls face certain types of violence, but indigenous and minority domestic workers endure a double tragedy. In Ethiopia, an estimated 248,600 women provided domestic work in 2018, with reports indicating that housemaids frequently experience forced sex and other forms of violence [10–20].

While research in Sub-Saharan Africa shows a range of 8.6% to 20.5%. In Ethiopia, the prevalence of sexual violence against female housemaids ranges from 27.8% to 72% in regions such as the Geode Zone, Harar, Addis Ababa, Debre Tabor, and Bahir Dar.

Global studies indicate that the prevalence of sexual violence among female housemaids ranges from 14% to 29% [21–25], while research in Sub-Saharan Africa shows a range of 8.6% to 20.5% [26–28]. In Ethiopia, the prevalence of sexual violence against female housemaids ranges from 27.8% to 72% in regions such as the Geode Zone, Harar, Addis Ababa, Debretabor, and Bahir Dar [29–34]. Identified risk factors for sexual violence include age, childhood residence, educational status, monthly salary, work experience, school performance, discussion of sexual and reproductive issues, alcohol use, family support, number of family members, social support, number of sexual partners, and distance from school [29,31,33–38].

Sexual violence holds a prominent position on the global agenda, being integrated into various international and national objectives. For instance, the Sustainable Development Goals aim to eradicate all forms of violence (Goal 5) and enhance educational achievements (Goal 4) by 2030. Similarly, Ethiopia’s Growth and Transformation Plan II prioritizes addressing violence as a key focus area. However, the school health programs have not adequately addressed sexual violence and other forms of violence [39,40]. Presently, tackling sexual violence is crucial for achieving these international and national targets and enhancing the overall well-being of victims. However, there is a lack of comprehensive data on the current prevalence and associated factors, hindering the design of effective interventions. Hence, the objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of sexual violence and identify its determinant factors among female housemaids enrolled in night school in Bahir Dar, Amhara regional state, Northwest Ethiopia, 2022.

Methods

Result

Socio-demographic characteristics of the housemaids

A total of 323 housemaids participated in this study, with a response rate of 95%. Two hundred fifty-three (78.5%) of the participants were below 20 years of age, with a mean and standard deviation of 18 years (SD±2.28). Two hundred eighty-four (78.9%) of the participants attended primary education (grades 1–8). Two hundred sixty-eight (83%) of the respondents don’t have a boyfriend. Three hundred four (94.1%) of the participants were on a permanent working agreement. Two hundred and eleven (65.3%) of their parents were alive, while thirty-eight (11.7%) of the participants’ parents had passed away. Concerning family support, one hundred eighty (55.7%) reported poor family support. One hundred ninety-three (59.7%) of the houses had more than three family members (Table 1).

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Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of female housemaids attending night school in Bahir Dar Northwest Ethiopia2022. (N = 323).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307308.t001

Sexual history and behavioral characteristics of the housemaids

Among the total study participants, one hundred and five (32.5%) had a history of sexual intercourse. Among those who have a history of sex, forty-three (13.3%) participants were sexually active in the past 12 months. The mean age of first sexual intercourse was 16 years, with a standard deviation of (SD±2.3). Two hundred forty-four (75.5%) of the participants had consumed alcohol at some point in their lives. Two hundred eleven (65.3%) of the men in the household drank alcohol. Ten (3.1%) of participants have ever smoked a cigar (Table 2).

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Table 2. Sexual and behavioral characteristics of female housemaids attending night school in Bahir Dar Northwest Ethiopia2022 (N = 323).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307308.t002

Factors associated with sexual violence among housemaids

In bivariable analysis, ever having sex, discussion of sexual and reproductive health, male employer alcohol use, work experience, employer family size, social support, school performance, and distance to school were associated with sexual violence at a P-value less than 0.25. In multivariable analysis, ever having sex, discussion of SRH, social support, school performance, and school distance were found to be statistically associated with sexual violence among housemaids at a P-value less than 0.05.

The odds of sexual violence among housemaids who had ever had sex were 4.67 times higher than those with no history of sex [AOR: 4.67, CI: (2.60, 8.39)]. Housemaids who did not discuss sexual and reproductive issues had a higher risk of sexual violence than their counterparts [AOR: 2.32, CI: 1.29, 4.16]. The odds of sexual violence among housemaids who had poor social support were 2.69 times higher than those who had moderate social support (AOR: 2.69, CI: 1.32, 5.52). The odds of sexual violence among students who traveled more than 20 minutes to reach school were 2.04 times higher than those who traveled less than 20 minutes [AOR: 2.04, CI: (1.19, 3.48)] (Table 3).

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Table 3. Bivariable and multi-variable regression analysis for factors associated with sexual violence among female housemaids attending night school in Bahir Dar Ethiopia 2022.

(N = 323).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307308.t003

Discussion

These studies identify the magnitude of sexual violence after being a housemaid was 30.3% (95% CI: 25.3–35.38). The finding of the study is consistent with studies done in Addis Ababa 28.6%, Debre Tabor 27.8% respectively [31,33], Hong Kong 25.38% [47] and India 29% [25]. However, the finding of this study was lower than studies done in Bahir Dar 49.1% [34], Gedeo zone 60.2% [29], and Harare 72% [30]. This may be due to the socio-demographic variations of the study participants. All the participants in this study were attending formal education, while study participants in Harar included housemaids who did not attend formal education, which increases vulnerability to sexual violence[48]. Similarly, the difference from the previous study conducted in Bahir Dar may be attributed to the characteristics of the participants. In the previous study, only 31% of participants lived with their employers, while 94% of participants in this study live with their employer [34].

On the other hand, the findings of this study were higher compared to a study done in Rwanda (8.67%) and Portugal (14%) [24,28]. This might be due to the tight implementation of laws against sexual violence compared to our study area. Portugal’s government has recently improved the flexibility of its employment rules and made a number of adjustments to them. It serves as a good illustration of an effective and quick economic and labor market recovery that doesn’t compromise employees’ rights. Currently, the Portuguese labor Code provides more employer-friendly regulations regarding workforce organization by attempting to strike a fair balance between employees’ rights and employers’ freedom of management, which helps to minimize the impacts of violence among workers [49]. This implies that Ethiopian governments will use the lessons learned to create employer rules and regulations, including contractual agreements.

Regarding the factors for sexual violence, history of sexual intercourse, discussion of sexual and reproductive issues, social support, school performance, and time taken to reach school were found to be independent predictors of sexual violence. Housemaids who have ever had sexual intercourse were more likely to be exposed to sexual violence than their counterparts were. Similarly, in Ethiopia and Jamaica, evidence suggests that the history of sexual activity does affect the occurrence of sexual violence [22,50]. This may be because individuals with a previous history of sexual intercourse often engage in risky behaviors that can increase their vulnerability to sexual violence [51].

This study identified that a housemaid who didn’t discuss sexual and reproductive health issues increased the risk of sexual violence. This finding was consistent with studies conducted in Bahir Dar and Arbaminch [34,36]. The reason for this might be because information and discussion on sexual and reproductive matters will enable them to understand their sexual rights. This will further empower women to fight against gender-based violence, including sexual violence [52]. This implies that improving the discussion about the SRH issue may reduce the risk of sexual violence.

Housemaids who have had poor social support are more vulnerable to sexual violence compared with those who have moderate social support. This finding was consistent with studies conducted in Ethiopia and the USA [37,53]. This may be because housemaids may create a formal or informal relationship that helps them reduce the psychological and physiological consequences of stress and that provides a sense of belonging and security in the community [54].

The result of this study revealed that school performance was significantly associated with sexual violence [34,45]. Similarly, the time it takes to get to school is another factor in sexual violence. This is in congruence with other findings in Ethiopia that showed that the longer it takes to reach the school, the higher the risk of experiencing sexual violence [36].

Conclusions

This study identified the magnitude of sexual violence among housemaid found to be high, compared to similar studies. Ever had sex, no discussion of sexual and reproductive health (SRH), poor social support, school performance, and time taken to reach school were found to be significant factors associated with housemaids’ sexual violence. Therefore, developing a strategy to increase sexual and reproductive health information for night school students is critical for reducing sexual violence. In addition, providing psychosocial support for the victim is important to reduce the risk of adverse psychosocial effects.

Acknowledgments

Firstly, the authors would like to express their gratitude to all participants who volunteered to take part in this study. We are also grateful to the Bahir Dar town education office staff, and schoolteachers for their invaluable support through the whole process and the supervisors and data collectors who have committed themselves throughout the study period.