Introduction

In today’s digital landscape, the widespread use of social media among young people sparks waves of concern, reminiscent of historical anxieties about the influence of emerging media forms like rock music, television, and video games [1–4]. Unlike its predecessors, social media uniquely combines continuous connectivity, interactivity, and personalisation, thus creating a rich tapestry of engagement that profoundly affects the mental health of its users [5–7]. Studies reveal a complex relationship wherein social media can be a source of support and connection, yet it also harbours the potential to exacerbate issues like anxiety, depression, and sleep disturbances [7–10]. This nuanced impact underscores the need for a multidisciplinary approach to fully understand and address the mental health challenges posed by social media to young people.

The intricate relationship between social media use and mental health challenges, particularly in young people, has been the focus of extensive academic scrutiny across various disciplines, providing theoretical contexts with which to consider the dynamics between social media and mental health among young people. For example, Psychology offers critical insights into the individual-level mental health effects of social media, examining how online interactions are related to mental health negatively (lower self-esteem, lower mood, and anxiety) and positively (social connectedness and meaning) [11, 12]. Sociology provides a broader lens, exploring the social implications of social media beyond the individual, thus allowing for an understanding of the collective phenomena associated with social media use, including the formation of online communities, and the spread of social norms. As such sociological research emphasises how social media not only shapes personal identities but also influences wider social networks and societal structures [13, 14]. Education Studies emphasize the promotion of adolescents’ mental health through experiential and interactive activities, positive education frameworks, and fostering digital responsibility. They highlight the crucial role of teachers and student engagement in integrating these practices into everyday educational settings to support overall well-being [15–17]. Political science explores how social media platforms function not only as arenas for personal interaction and self-expression but also as significant spaces for political socialisation, civic engagement, and mobilisation among young people [18]. Philosophical perspectives explore the ethical, moral, and existential questions surrounding social media use, probing into the ethical considerations of online behaviour, privacy, and the digital self, offering a critical perspective on the influence of social media on young people’s lives [19]. Media studies explore the relationship between social media use and young people’s mental health introducing and utilising concepts like cyberbullying, digital literacy, social media addiction, and information overload to consider social media’s effects on society and individual well-being and the importance of navigational skills in digital environments [20, 21]. Linguistics sheds light on how social media transforms language use and communication patterns; revealing the complexities of digital communication, including the role of emojis, memes, and online slang, in shaping interactions and social connections. Findings suggest that the analysis of the digital linguistic exchanges on social platforms, provide insights into the evolving nature of language, discourse, and communication in the digital age [22]. Social work perspectives emphasise practical approaches to supporting young people facing mental health challenges exacerbated by social media, by discussing social and policy interventions aimed at mitigating the negative impacts of social media, thus highlighting the importance of support mechanisms, educational programs, and policy frameworks designed to protect and empower young people [23]. Anthropological perspectives can assist in examining the cultural and societal dimensions of social media; exploring how it reshapes human interactions, community bonds, and cultural identities. For example, research suggests how social media impacts young peoples’ perceptions and societal roles, offering the study of cultural practices and narratives that emerge within digital spaces [24, 25]. Finally, health sciences perspectives explore social media influences on promoting risky behaviors, but also social support and information access information can mitigate risks and enhance positive impacts [26–28].

The complex relationship between social media use and young persons’ mental health necessitates a multidisciplinary approach to fully comprehend and effectively address its multifaceted nature. The lack of integration among various academic disciplines often results in fragmented insights, with disciplines such as sociology, psychology, education, media studies, health sciences, political science, social work, anthropology, philosophy, and linguistics operating in silos, leading to a partial and segmented understanding. This division hinders the development of comprehensive interventions and policy strategies. To overcome these limitations, an integrated, interdisciplinary perspective is crucial–that would aim for a more holistic account of the topic, recognizing the complexity, and present a more succinct account appropriate for policy and educational intervention. First, combining different disciplines could provide a more holistic understanding of impact. For example, whereas a psychology-focused study might exclusively examine the direct effects of social media on individual mental health symptoms like anxiety and depression [29], an interdisciplinary approach by integrating psychology, sociology, media studies, and education offers a broader understanding that encompasses not only these direct effects but also the underlying social dynamics, educational impacts, and media interactions [30–32]. This holistic view reveals how these areas intersect and influence one another, leading to more nuanced findings. Second, using different disciplines might acknowledge where levels of complexity exist. For example, while an anthropology-focused study might limit itself to exploring cultural impacts and identity formation [24], combining anthropology with psychology and sociology allows for an exploration of how cultural impacts influence mental health and social behavior in a feedback loop [33]. Such an interdisciplinary approach acknowledges complex relationships, for instance, how cultural norms around social media usage can exacerbate or mitigate mental health issues. Third, work then that aims to support educational/policy recommendations also benefit from this interdisciplinary synergy. Instead of a narrow focus from political science on governance and regulation [34], merging insights from political science, social work, health sciences, and media studies allows for the formulation of more nuanced policy recommendations [35]. These can address not just the regulation of digital content but also the use of social media to promote mental health resources, community engagement strategies, and educational reforms [8], thereby enriching societal and cultural implications. In summary, the interdisciplinary confluence is imperative not only for addressing the symptoms of social media’s influence but also for achieving a cohesive and deeper understanding of how social media shapes both individual identities and broader societal dynamics. This will be accomplished by developing a holistic view, recognizing the complexity of these interactions, and providing succinct, actionable policy and educational recommendations.

This study aims to delve into the effects of social media on young people’s mental health by merging insights from various academic fields. By synthesizing knowledge from disciplines such as psychology, sociology, education, and media studies, we form a holistic understanding of how social media influences the well-being of young individuals. Specifically, this study seeks to answer the research question: ’How do interdisciplinary perspectives enhance our understanding of the impact of social media on the mental health of young people?’ This question aims to clarify the scope of our research and guide the investigation into the complex dynamics of social media’s influence across different disciplinary lenses.

Method

Ethics approval for the study was granted by the University of Leicester Psychology Ethics Board, with the reference number 42292-jm148-ls&visionsciences,schof. In alignment with ethical guidelines, informed consent was obtained from all participants. This consent was facilitated through an online survey, where respondents indicated their consent by affirmatively selecting the consent option on the digital form confirming consent statements. This consent option confirmed that participants were fully informed and voluntarily agreed to participate in the study.

Results

Stage 1 of the analysis identified the initial themes for each of the ten academic disciplines, separately for primary and secondary headteachers. S4 Table provides a detailed breakdown of the initial themes identified for each discipline for primary school headteachers’ views on social media’s impact on young persons’ mental health. From a psychological perspective, the themes cover self-perception, cyberbullying, social skill effects, and risks including inappropriate content. From a sociological perspective, themes emerge around self-image through unrealistic standards, peer interactions, including cyberbullying, and mental overload from constant connectivity. From an educational studies perspective, themes focus on digital literacy and teaching critical thinking skills, nurturing social-emotional skills, prioritising online safety, and recognising social media’s impact on self-identity. From a political science perspective, themes focus on parental and community engagement, policy impact on social behaviour, assess globalised cultural influence, and digital space governance for young persons’ well-being. From a philosophy perspective, themes explore how social media shapes reality perception, influences behaviour and morality, impacts cognitive-emotional development, and plays a role in social dynamics and inclusion. From a media studies perspective, themes focus on how social media shapes self-identity, changes in social skills, media literacy, and fostering online communities and support networks for young people. From a linguistics perspective, the themes focus on impacts on mental health, distortions in self-perception and body image, fuelling of cyberbullying and peer pressure, worsens anxiety, fostering an ‘always-on’ culture, and disrupts real-world interactions. From a social work perspective, themes focus on affecting self-esteem, body image, fuelling online bullying and peer pressure, impacting mental health, the addictive nature, disrupting social skills, and altering family dynamics and communication skills. From an anthropology perspective, the themes focus on moulding cultural norms and expectations around conformity and appearance, and the paradox of both social connection and isolation. From a Health Science perspective, the themes focus on impacts on mental health and social comparison and self-esteem, fuelling cyber-bullying, influences on physical health, and parental influence and modelling.

S5 Table provides a detailed breakdown of the initial themes identified for each discipline for secondary school headteachers in views on social media’s impact on young persons’ mental health. From a psychological perspective, the themes cover general anxiety and stress, self-esteem and body image concerns, hampering real-world social skills and community building. From a sociological perspective, themes emerge around the shaping of self-perception, the influences on social interactions, and mixed effects on mental health. From an educational studies perspective, themes focus on integrating digital literacy into curriculum development, addressing the psychosocial impact, adapting for special needs, leadership in the digital era, and developing policies to protect students’ mental health, and social media as a societal mirror. From a political science perspective, themes focus on governance and policy, ethical implications, global mental health, economic influence, and cross-cultural impact of social media on young people. From a philosophy perspective, themes explore digital identity, information perception, ethics, logical reasoning, aesthetics, and governance. From a media studies perspective, themes focus on how social media shapes identity, socialisation, media literacy, fostering online communities, and affects mental health. From a linguistics perspective, the themes focus on social media distorts reality, affects self-esteem, leads to mental strain, fuels cyberbullying and peer pressure, and has both positive and negative influences. From a social work perspective, themes focus on hindering social skills, damages to self-esteem, enabling cyberbullying, misinformation, and the triggering of addictive behaviours impacting mental health. From an anthropology perspective, the themes focus on how digital culture shapes identity, affects development, changes communication, and creates a unique social structure within social media platforms. From a Health Science perspective, the themes focus on impacts to psychosocial aspects, influences on behaviour, effects on mental health, shaping of perception, and fostering of both positive and negative community connections.

Stage 2 of the analysis establishes superordinate themes by integrating the ten disciplinary perspectives separately for primary and secondary headteachers.

For primary headteachers (Table 1), five superordinate themes are identified. First, Self-Perception and Identity Formation, describing how social media shapes young people’s self-image and identities, highlighting the gap between digital personas and real selves. It draws from several disciplines, including Sociology, Psychology, and Anthropology, emphasising the role of cultural norms and unrealistic beauty standards. Second, Social Skills and Peer Interactions, focused on altered social dynamics due to social media, this theme covers aspects like cyberbullying and the impact on face-to-face communication skills, integrating insights from Sociology, Education Studies, and Media Studies. Third, Direct Mental Health and Well-being, addressing the complex relationship between social media and mental health, this theme encompasses constant connectivity, mental overload, and exposure to inappropriate content, with contributions from disciplines like Health Sciences and Social Work. Fourth, Digital Literacy and Critical Thinking, highlighting the importance of developing digital literacy and critical thinking in the digital era. Contributions from Education Studies, Media Studies, and Philosophy underscore the need for enhanced skills to navigate digital challenges. Lastly, Governance, Policy, and Cultural Influence, focussing on the broader societal impact of social media, including the role of governance and policy in managing its influence on young people’s mental health, drawing from Political Science and Anthropology.

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Table 1. Superordinate themes from the thematic analysis of primary school headteacher narratives around social media effects on young people’s mental health.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307164.t001

For secondary headteachers (Table 2), the analysis reveals similar themes. First, Identity and Self-Perception, focussing on the profound influence of social media on identity construction and self-perception, mediated by cultural and societal norms and the portrayal of idealised images on digital platforms. Second, Social Interaction and Communication Skills, addressing the shift in socialisation dynamics, highlighting the transition from traditional to digital communication methods and their implications for developing social skills and real-world interactions. Third, Influence on Well-being, discussing the multifaceted impact of social media on mental health, including both stress and anxiety-inducing factors and opportunities for community support, especially for marginalised groups. Fourth, Digital Literacy and Information Perception, focussing on the necessity of digital literacy in modern education, emphasising the critical engagement with digital content and its impact on perceptions and beliefs. Lastly, Governance and Policy in Digital Spaces, exploring the crucial role of governance and policy in regulating digital spaces, focusing on content regulation, education, awareness, and international cooperation.

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Table 2. Superordinate themes from the thematic analysis of secondary school headteacher narratives around social media effects on young people’s mental health.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307164.t002

Discussion

The study, through its innovative methodology employing ChatGPT-4 for thematic analysis, provides an unprecedented multi-disciplinary perspective on the impact of social media on young peoples’ mental health. The sample of 492 UK school headteachers, including those with roles in headship, deputy headship, and pupil welfare, offered a rich and varied dataset for analysis, though they tend to reflect a predominantly negative perspective on the impact of social media on young people’s mental health, highlighting concerns over issues such as depression, anxiety, and self-esteem, self-perception, health and body image, social skills, cyber-bullying, digital literacy, governance, and cultural norms. The results, separated by primary and secondary education levels, reveal significant insights into the multifaceted nature of social media’s influence on mental health across different developmental stages. This provides a comprehensive examination of the effects of social media on young peoples’ mental health through the lens of UK school headteachers.

Drawing from a multidisciplinary approach across primary and secondary sectors that includes psychology, media studies, sociology, anthropology, linguistics, social work, philosophy, education, and health sciences, the study highlights both the potential negative and positive aspects of social media use. The majority of assessments from the headteachers suggest a more negative view on the effects of social media on mental health, which is consistent with the findings of the literature [65]. On the negative side, headteachers noted concerns about social media exacerbating issues of anxiety, depression, cyberbullying, and sleep disturbances. The constant connectivity and exposure to unrealistic standards on social media platforms were seen as contributing to negative self-perception, identity formation issues, and increased mental health challenges among young people. These insights underscore the complex relationship between social media use and mental well-being, highlighting the need for tailored interventions and policies to mitigate these adverse effects. Conversely, the study also identifies positive aspects of social media, such as fostering social connectedness, providing support networks, and facilitating identity exploration. The headteachers acknowledged the role of social media in offering a space for young people to find communities, engage in social activism, and express themselves creatively. This dual perspective emphasises the refined impact of social media, suggesting that while there are significant concerns, there are also opportunities for positive engagement that can support mental health.

In terms of the themes for developing a multi-disciplinary understanding of social media effects on mental health, five similar themes emerged for primary and secondary headteachers. For primary headteachers, five superordinate themes emerged: Self-Perception and Identity Formation, Social Skills and Peer Interactions, Direct Mental Health and Well-being, Digital Literacy and Critical Thinking, and Governance, Policy, and Cultural Influence. These themes highlight the complex interplay between social media and various aspects of young people’s lives, including identity formation, social interaction, and mental well-being. The synthesis of perspectives from diverse disciplines such as Sociology, Psychology, Education Studies, and Anthropology highlights the nuanced ways in which social media impacts young children. Additionally, the secondary headteachers’ responses centred around similar yet distinctly developed themes like Identity and Self-Perception, Social Interaction and Communication Skills, Influence on Well-being, Digital Literacy and Information Perception, and Governance and Policy in Digital Spaces. This reflects a more mature understanding of social media’s role in shaping adolescents’ identities and social interactions, as well as the importance of digital literacy and policy in navigating these digital spaces.

The analysis of responses from both primary and secondary school headteachers revealed common themes, leading to the development of a new model, we name as the Comprehensive Digital Influence Model (See Table 3), focusing on five key areas:

• Self-Identity and Perception Formation: Both primary and secondary levels emphasise the significant role of social media in shaping self-image, identity, and self-esteem. This convergence indicates a universal effect of social media in moulding young people’s self-conception across all ages [66–70].
• Social Interaction Skills and Peer Communication: A shared concern is the impact of social media on social skills and peer interactions, including the prevalence of cyberbullying. This highlights a widespread apprehension about the transformation of traditional social dynamics due to digital interactions, evident in both educational stages [71–73].
• Mental and Emotional Well-Being: The analyses from both primary and secondary levels acknowledge the complex relationship between social media use and mental health issues like anxiety and stress. This mutual focus underscores the recognition of social media as a pivotal factor in young people’s mental health, with both its positive and negative aspects [20, 74].
• Digital Literacy, Critical Thinking, and Information Perception: There is an emphasis on the necessity for enhanced digital literacy and critical thinking skills. This reflects a common understanding of the importance of empowering young people with the skills to navigate and critically evaluate digital content [75–78].
• Governance, Policy, and Cultural Influence in Digital Spaces: Both educational levels underscore the importance of governance and policy in managing digital spaces and their influence on mental health. This convergence suggests a consensus on the need for structured regulation and guidance in the digital realm, highlighting the crucial role of governance and societal influence in mitigating the challenges posed by digital media [79–81].

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Table 3. The comprehensive digital influence model, indicating different emphases between primary and secondary school contexts.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307164.t003

Within the Comprehensive Digital Influence Model (also see Table 3), we are also able to note that in terms of age-related psychological development, the thematic focus of primary and secondary schools diverges notably. Primary school themes are predominantly centred on foundational aspects, encompassing the formation of basic social skills, children’s initial interactions with digital media, and the early impact of social media on self-perception and identity formation. In contrast, secondary school themes explore more intricate psychological and social dynamics. For example, in terms of the first dimension, Self-Identity and Perception Formation, in primary schools the focus is on the basic development of social skills and the initial stages of identity formation. Concerns are predominantly centred on how social media influences the early shaping of self-image and identity in children [82]. In secondary schools, a more nuanced view is presented, delving into the interactions between psychological factors, social dynamics, digital literacy, and societal structures. This approach reflects a deeper understanding of older children who are navigating more complex stages of psychological development [83]. Second is Social Interaction Skills and Peer Communication. In primary schools, the concentration is on developing basic social skills and mitigating the immediate effects of digital communication, with a significant focus on the immediate impact of cyberbullying [84, 85]. However, in secondary schools, the focus is more on complex social dynamics. This encompasses the development of skills needed for real-world interactions, understanding the role of digital platforms in social interaction, and grappling with the impact of constant connectivity on mental health [32]. Third is: Mental and Emotional Well-Being. In primary schools, the emphasis lies on the direct relationship between social media and mental health. This includes addressing issues like constant connectivity, mental overload, and children’s initial exposure to potentially inappropriate content [86]. However, in secondary schools, Headteachers offer a more layered perspective of mental health, acknowledging both the positive and negative aspects of social media use. This stance indicates a more profound comprehension of the diverse impacts on adolescent mental health [34]. Fourth is Digital Literacy, Critical Thinking, and Information Perception. In primary schools, the focus is on rudimentary stages of developing these skills. Efforts are made to help children discern the difference between reality and digital portrayals, thereby laying the groundwork for media literacy [87]. Among secondary schools, the emphasis is on the advanced development of digital literacy. This includes integrating these concepts into the curriculum, and fostering sophisticated information perception and management skills, indicating a deeper engagement with digital content [88, 89]. Fifth is Governance, Policy, and Cultural Influence in Digital Spaces. Among primary schools, a foundational approach is suggested, focusing on the impact of policy, global cultural influences, and the need for enhanced positive parental and community involvement [90]. Among secondary schools, headteacher discussions revolve around more sophisticated themes, such as digital governance, the development of policies for digital well-being, and the role of educational leadership in navigating the challenges of the digital era [91, 92].

The study delivers significant insights across various domains, notably by establishing a more holistic, nuanced understanding of the complex interplay between social media and young people’s mental health, and by formulating succinct, policy and educationally relevant recommendations. Employing ChatGPT-4 for thematic analysis, our methodology introduces a comprehensive multidisciplinary lens to examine the complex interactions between social media use and the mental health of young individuals. This innovative approach not only enhances the granularity of our findings but also establishes a new precedent for future research methodologies within this sphere. The introduction of the Comprehensive Digital Influence Model—based on the study’s findings—provides a structured, holistic framework that encapsulates the multifaceted impacts of social media across different developmental stages and thematic areas. By synthesizing perspectives from diverse disciplines such as sociology, psychology, education, and anthropology, the model offers a more holistic and complex understanding of social media’s influence than is typically achieved through single-discipline studies. This comprehensive approach is especially valuable for mental health professionals and educators, equipping them with a nuanced understanding that can inform therapeutic interventions and educational curricula designed to mitigate the risks associated with social media use, such as cyberbullying and addiction. Regarding policy implications, our findings are instrumental for policymakers in shaping educational content that addresses critical areas like digital literacy, mental health, and social skills, tailored to cater to various developmental needs. The study highlights the importance of creating informed governance and policies that effectively manage and regulate digital media’s influence on youth, advocating for partnerships with technology companies to establish safer online environments. It also suggests enhancing parental and community involvement to better manage children’s digital interactions, emphasizing a collaborative approach to digital education and safety. Furthermore, the insights derived from this research are crucial for the development of educational practices that foster not only digital literacy but also critical thinking and social-emotional learning. By integrating these elements into school curricula, the study advocates for a more informed and proactive approach to social media use among young people. This includes empowering students to critically assess online content and engage in positive online interactions, thereby equipping them with the tools needed to navigate the complexities of digital spaces effectively. In essence, this study offers valuable contributions to theoretical frameworks, policy development, and educational practices, underscoring the need for an integrated approach that combines insights from multiple disciplines to fully address the intricate dynamics of social media’s impact on young people’s mental health. This makes it a pivotal resource for stakeholders ranging from academic researchers to policymakers and educators, all of whom play a critical role in shaping the digital landscape to support the well-being of young users.

In examining the study, it is pivotal to acknowledge the unique expertise of the participants—UK school headteachers—whose insights form the foundation of this important work. Their expert views offer a distinctive perspective on the impact of social media on young peoples’ mental health, making this study a substantial contribution to the field. However, while the study stands as a foundational piece of work, leveraging the specialised knowledge of headteachers, it also encounters certain limitations. The sample, although rich with the professional insights of headteachers, may not encompass the full spectrum of global perspectives, particularly those of students, parents, and other educators, potentially affecting the universality of the findings across various cultural, socioeconomic, or educational contexts. Methodologically, while the use of ChatGPT-4 for thematic analysis is innovative, it might have intrinsic limitations in fully grasping the qualitative nuances that human researchers, particularly those with a deep understanding of educational contexts, could interpret. Moreover, it’s important to consider the political biases noted in ChatGPT-4 [45–47], as these may influence how it processes and interprets data. While the influence of such biases is expected to be limited in the context of analyzing educational impacts of social media on mental health among young people, they are still worth careful consideration. Also, the single question, though effective in gaining a large number of views and allows respondents to focus on a single issue, limits the ability to understand causal relationships or the enduring effects of social media on young peoples’ mental health. Future research, building on this foundation laid by experts in education, could explore several avenues. Building on this research to build on a wider array of perspectives, such as those from students and parents, would provide a more comprehensive view of the issue–but doing so within the proposed model may be necessary to provide context or development of research with those views. As such there are three possible ways in which this can be done to refine and develop the model. First, integrating developmental psychology more explicitly could provide a deeper alignment of the model with the cognitive, emotional, and social development stages of children and adolescents. This approach would benefit from the inclusion of insights from developmental psychologists to refine how social media impacts are framed within different age groups. Second, expanding data sources to include direct input from children and adolescents through qualitative studies or surveys could enrich the model by incorporating firsthand perspectives on social media’s influence, adding depth and accuracy. Lastly, refining the model parameters to account for variables such as socio-economic status, cultural background, and individual psychological traits would enable the creation of more nuanced interventions and policies, tailored to meet the diverse needs of different student populations, thereby enhancing the model’s utility and applicability.

This study, leveraging ChatGPT-4’s thematic analysis and insights from 492 UK school headteachers, presents the Comprehensive Digital Influence Model (CDIM), a novel framework encapsulating the complex impact of social media on young peoples’ mental health. The CDIM, distilled from both primary and secondary school perspectives, highlights key areas: Self-Identity and Perception Formation, Social Interaction Skills, Mental and Emotional Well-Being, Digital Literacy and Critical Thinking, and Governance in Digital Spaces. This study not only advances methodological approaches in educational and psychological research but also offers invaluable insights for policy development and educational practices. It emphasises the urgent need for structured digital literacy programs, nuanced mental health strategies, and effective governance in digital media, particularly tailored for varying developmental stages. As a pioneering exploration into the digital influences shaping young minds, this work sets a precedent for future interdisciplinary research and policymaking, marking the crucial role of comprehensive, age-appropriate strategies in navigating the digital era’s challenges and opportunities.

Supporting information