Introduction

Although coaches appear to be an ideal population for interventions, considering their essential role and influence on the athlete [1], the target of the research focused on training interventions has historically been the athlete. For instance, while mindfulness is an increasingly popular practice among elite athletes to improve performance and well-being [2], their effect on coaches remains largely unexplored. Although few, mindfulness interventions for coaches showed encouraging results such as stress reduction, improved well-being, improved interactions with athletes [3], better recovery, and burnout prevention [4].

Coaches ability to manage stress is critical as it is recognized that pressure to succeed, excessive workload, lack of job security, frequent travel, and isolation [5] can negatively affect their performance and long-term health [6]. However, coaches are generally not well equipped to handle stress, high levels of anxiety, fatigue, tension, anger, and depressive emotions [7]. The ability to deal with emotions is a fundamental skill for coaches as it is related to improved performance, player satisfaction, good relationships, and effective leadership [8].

Correlational research supports the association between mindfulness and reduced difficulties in emotion regulation [9]. Mindfulness practice can improve emotion regulation skills by decreasing both over-engagement (e.g., rumination) and under-engagement (e.g., avoidance) and facilitating healthy, adaptive engagement that promotes clarity and functional use of emotional responses [10].

Mindfulness training also allows coaches to be more present and improve concentration [11]. Specifically, mindfulness training has been positively related to selective attention [12], sustained attention [13], the orientation of attention [14], and attentional flexibility [15]. Similarly, Kee (2019) proposed that a coach trained in mindfulness would be in a better position to appreciate the nuances of emergent behavior [16]. In particular, by adopting an open awareness of the player’s behavior and temporarily suspending any judgment, and pointed out the relevance of interpersonal mindfulness.

Interpersonal mindfulness describes the capacity of people to be mindful during their interpersonal interactions [17]. Literature about the importance of interpersonal skills for coaches is vast. For instance, Côté and Gilbert (2009), in their integrative definition of coaching effectiveness, highlighted the importance of a coach’s ability to create and maintain relationships and encouraged coaches to look for methods through which they can continually develop their interpersonal knowledge in order to communicate appropriately and effectively with their athletes [18]. Importantly, positive communication styles have improved athletes’ mental health [19], and psychologically safe environments [20].

Finally, it’s considered that the coach’s ability to maximize athletes’ results is also based on constant introspection [18]. Giges et al. (2004) postulated that self-aware coaches could more effectively assess and respond to their players, better see what effect their behaviors, feelings, or communication have on their players, and understand what generates their thoughts, feelings and actions [21]. Even though the importance of self-regulation and interpersonal and intrapersonal knowledge for coaches, the education programs have generally focused just on the professional knowledge [22].

For all these reasons, this study aimed to assess the effects of a new mindfulness-based program intended for coaches, support staff, and technical directors on the levels of mindfulness trait, interpersonal mindfulness and difficulties in emotional regulation. The hypothesis was that the participants would increase their levels of mindfulness trait and interpersonal mindfulness and decrease their difficulties in emotional regulation. Furthermore, this study aimed to bolster best practices for implementing mindfulness-based programs for this population.

Method

The research project was carried out in an elite football academy, headquartered in Barcelona (Spain), and includes several international academies. The program was offered to coaches, support staff, coordinators and leadership positions such as technical directors. The study was developed following the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and the Guide to Good Research Practice. The protocol was approved by the Clinical Research Ethics Committee of the Sports Administration of Catalonia (21/CEICGC/2020). Study information was provided orally and in writing to the participants, who could ask questions before agreeing to participate. Confidentiality and anonymity were maintained in accordance with Law 15/1999. The data was coded and only the research team had access to it. The recruitment process started on February 5^th of 2021 and finished on May 20^th of the same year.

Procedure

The club approved the proposal with a complete description of the study. Afterwards, all Academy members were summoned to a 30-minute online presentation in which the study’s purpose, the program’s characteristics, and the voluntary nature of their participation were presented. Subsequently, an online form was sent so that those interested could register. The homogeneous distribution in different time slots allowed the distribution of the participants between an experimental and wait-list control group. The study information and informed consent were delivered, duly filled out and signed. The evaluation instruments were administered online with a clear and equal procedure for all participants. The program was carried out online. In the week following the end of the program, the levels of the different variables in both groups were re-evaluated. Subsequently, the wait-list control group did the program as agreed. Finally, two follow-up measurements (at 3 and 6 months) were administrated to those participants who had completed the program.

A new mindfulness-based program was designed (M×E; Mindfulness para Entrenadores), combing those contents considered most relevant from well-established programs such as Mindful Sports Performance Enhancement (MSPE) [23], Mindfulness Acceptance and Commitment (MAC) [24], and Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR). The program consisted of 6 weeks with a weekly session of 75 min. at the express will of the club. The first three sessions were adapted from the MSPE: S1 presented the fundamentals of mindfulness, S2 focused on the states of maximum performance and their facilitators, and S3 encompassed those contents considered most relevant from the other MSPE sessions. S4, inspired by the MBSR, had emotions as its central theme, including self-regulation strategies; S5 presented the role that values can play as a compass for behavior and was adapted from the work of Josefsson et al. (2019) using the MAC [25]; to end with, S6 included the theme of conscious communication (also inspired by the MBSR), and ended with a summary of the main contents and recommendations to continue with the practice. The primary characteristics of mindfulness (attention in the present moment and the attitude of acceptance) were present cross-sectionally. The reader can consult each session’s contents and formal practices in Table 1.

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Table 1. M×E’s contents.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306824.t001

The M×E provided a weekly training schedule that progressively increased both in volume and variability, with four sections: (i) formal practice, (ii) informal practice, (iii) professional practice, and (iv) self-awareness practice. Formal practice included three sitting meditations lasting 10, 15, and 20 minutes, a body scan, and mindful movement. Informal practice focused on practicing mindfulness in daily life as well as STOP moments (Stop, Breathe, Observe, Proceed). Professional practice, designed specifically for this program, aimed to transfer mindfulness to work-related scenarios. For instance, the on-pitch training plan started with being mindful during the warm-up and progressively increased volume and variability, ending with practicing being mindful throughout the whole training session. Finally, self-awareness practice proposed a weekly objective related to the content (for example, be aware of the autopilot in week 1).

Microsoft Teams was used as an online platform (the one used by the club). The first author, who had extensive experience with mindfulness and meditation as well as the leadership on mindfulness-based programs, was the instructor, being a good connoisseur not only of the content but also of the context of the participants, with previous experience in most participants’ roles (coach, coordinator, and technical director) in the same club. The club’s sports psychology team supervised the program.

Results

Comparison between experimental and control groups

The descriptive statistics by experimental condition at pre- and post-test are presented in Table 2. Independent samples t-tests showed no significant baseline differences between groups. RM ANOVA 2×2 revealed a statistically significant interaction between the effects of condition and time on the global scores of the three variables (mindfulness trait, interpersonal mindfulness and difficulties in emotion regulation). The analysis of the evolution of each group separately is illustrated in Fig 1. It showed a statistically significant difference in the experimental group (t_{(1, 45)} = 2.579; p = .013; 95% CI 1.843, 2.429), but the difference was not significant in the wait-list control group (t_{(1, 45)} = 1.111; p = .276; 95% CI 2.100, 2.658). Consequently, additional RM ANOVAs 2×2 were performed for each subscale separately.

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Fig 1. Estimated marginal means of study variables for each experimental condition at pre and post periods.

Note. For these analyses, experimental condition n = 26, and wait-list control condition n = 21. T1 = pre-test; T2 = post-test.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306824.g001

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Table 2. Means, standard deviations, and repeated-measures ANOVA interaction effect in all dependent variables and subscales.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306824.t002

Follow-up of the experimental group

RM ANOVAs were used to determine whether the levels of the study variables changed from the pre- to the 6-month follow-up test for the experimental groups. As shown in Table 3 and illustrated in Fig 2, the analysis revealed that time did have a significant effect, between at least two times, on the global scores of the three variables. Follow-up RM ANOVA for each subscale showed that time had a significant effect on most of them, except for describing (an aspect of mindfulness trait), strategies (an aspect of difficulties in emotion regulation), and presence (an aspect of interpersonal mindfulness) without any significant effect.

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Fig 2. Evolution of the estimated marginal means for the experimental group for each study variable.

Note. For these analyses, n = 29. T1 = pre-test; T2 = post-test; T3 = 3-month follow-up; T4 = 6-month follow-up.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306824.g002

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Table 3. Means, standard deviations, and repeated-measures ANOVA in all dependent variables for the experimental group.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306824.t003

In the Post Hoc comparison between moments, the Bonferroni correction was applied. Statistically significant differences were detected in mindfulness trait between T1 (pre-test) and T2 (post-test) (t_{(3, 84)} = 4.191; p = .002; 95% CI 3.267, 3.909), T1 and T3 (3-month follow-up) (t_{(3, 84)} = 5.189; p < .001; 95% CI 3.267, 4.007), and T1 and T4 (6-month follow-up) (t_{(3, 84)} = 4.776; p < .001; 95% CI 3.267, 3.986); in interpersonal mindfulness between T1 and T2 (t_{(3, 84)} = 3.000; p = .037; 95% CI 3.555, 4.089), T1 and T3 (t_{(3, 84)} = 3.338; p = .015; 95% CI 3.555, 4.124), and T1 and T4 (t_{(3, 84)} = 3.394; p = 007; 95% CI 3.555, 4.148), and in difficulties in emotion regulation between T1 and T2 (t_{(3, 84)} = 3.524; p = .009; 95% CI 1.769, 2.385), T1 and T3 (t_{(3, 84)} = 4.645; p < .001; 95% CI 1.732, 2.385), and T1 and T4 (t_{(3, 84)} = 6.086; p < .001; 95% CI 1.732, 2.385), as well as between T2 and T4 (t_{(3, 84)} = 3.091; p = .029; 95% CI 1.598, 2.155). The evolution of the estimated marginal means for each variable is illustrated in Fig 2.

Discussion

The study’s objective was to evaluate the impact of a new mindfulness-based program (M×E) on coaches, support staff, and technical directors of an elite football academy. All hypotheses were confirmed since participants in the M×E showed a significant increase in mindfulness trait and interpersonal mindfulness and a significant improvement in emotional regulation compared to the wait-list control group. Moreover, follow-up measurements of the experimental group showed increases up to 6 months in the three variables. The qualitative analysis reinforced the statistical results and revealed that the program positively impacted participants’ professional and personal lives. Finally, “best practices” in the program administration were also extracted from the interviews.

The significant increase in mindfulness trait reinforced previous results in implementing mindfulness training for sports coaches [3]. The qualitative data showed how the participants transferred it to their jobs, highlighting moments of concentration and observation. These results are supported by Baltzell et al. (2015) [11], who suggested that mindfulness training could allow coaches to be more present and improve concentration on task-relevant cues. Moreover, the significant improvement in emotional regulation matches the results from Longshore and Sachs (2015) [3], where significantly greater emotional stability was shown after completing a mindfulness program. The ability to deal with emotions is considered a fundamental skill for coaches [33], with possible effects on well-being and performance [8].

Participants in the M×E showed a significant increase in levels of interpersonal mindfulness compared to the wait-list control group. According to Kee (2019) [16], coaches who are more aware, especially in terms of interpersonal attention, could gain deeper insight into their athletes, leading to better adjustments to task constraints. From the interviews, it also emerged that participants started to transfer what learned in during the mindfulness sessions to daily training, gaining deeper vision on players’ behaviors: “Since the program, I began to be more aware and observe the behaviors of the players, what behaviors emerged from them… and came out with much more information” (Sergi, technical director). These results are similar to the study by Baltzell et al. (2015) [11], where coaches reported that they became more focused and able to understand the emotional and mental states of their players through participation in a mindfulness-based program. Another notable aspect was communication, one of the novelties of the M×E compared to previously implemented programs. This point is especially relevant since communication is considered one of the essential aspects of the coach’s role, and interventions that promote positive communication styles improve athletes’ mental health [19], and maintain psychologically safe environments [20].

According to Côté and Gilbert (2009) [18], a coach’s ability to maximize athletes’ results is based on constant introspection and reviewing one’s practice. Sports psychology has long recognized the importance of awareness, particularly self-awareness, for coaches to be more effective, as they can more effectively assess and respond to their players, can better see what effect their behaviors, feelings or communication have on their players, as well as understand what generates their thoughts, feelings and actions [21, 34]. M×E included the ‘self-awareness’ training plan to promote further this self-awareness and its transfer to the leadership style, which was widely highlighted by participants: “The greatest impact the program has had is on self-knowledge” (Joan, coach).

Importantly, mindfulness is considered a way to improve performance and overall well-being [24]. The balance between work and personal life found in this study is considered a key protective factor for having good mental health [35], and these results reinforce those of Longshore and Sachs (2015) [3]. Furthermore, the acquisition of healthier habits was also noticeable during the interviews. Importantly, researchers agree that coaches often lack self-care, leading to high levels of stress and burnout [36]. Finally, M×E’s participants reported how the program had impacted their relationships. This finding reinforces the previous results of Baltzell et al. (2015) [11] and Longshore and Sachs (2015) [3], where coaches reported improved social relationships. Similarly, participants also emphasized group cohesion and connection with other participants, as previously highlighted by Spencer et al. (2019) [37]. The ‘sense of belonging’ also emerged from the interviews and is relevant since belonging and having close social relationships are fundamental human needs related to well-being [38]. The results of this study add to other research that shows that mindfulness contributes to a better quality of life [39] and reinforce that incorporating mindfulness for coaches can benefit them beyond professional development but their overall well-being.

To end with, one of the main objectives of this study was to detect best practices in implementing such programs. For instance, the practical orientation of the M×E was one of the most valued elements. Informal practice and STOP moments regarding the practice and training plan were frequently mentioned in the interviews. The professional practice of the training plan designed specifically for this program also had a great impact and constitutes one of the best practices of the M×E as well as the self-awareness practice. The in-class group meditation was appreciated as a way of connection between participants, something also found in Baltzell et al. (2015) [11], where the coaching staff stated that meditating with the athletes deepened the level of closeness that the coaches felt with their players.

The ‘safe space’ effects were, without a doubt, one of the most relevant impacts of the M×E. According to Edmondson (1999) [40], creating an environment that is perceived as psychologically safe reflects a climate of interpersonal trust, mutual respect, and acceptance, which facilitates active participation. Various research in work contexts has reinforced the positive outcomes of psychological safety [41], with positive associations with team performance [42] and well-being [43].

Finally, considering the voluntary nature of the program, some preconceived ideas of the participants about the value of mindfulness could have influenced their evaluation. Also, most participants knew the leader and expressed their satisfaction which could have influenced their evaluations of the overall program, which is consistent with previous research (Baltzell et al., 2015) [11]. However, Minkler et al. (2020) [44] found benefits when someone led the program with ongoing contact with the team. Considering the positive results of this study, the fact that the program leader is part of the usual dynamic is a good practice.

The present study has some limitations that should be considered. The quasi-experimental design makes it impossible to infer that the program was solely responsible for the observed improvements. Another limitation was due to the fact that the Interpersonal Mindfulness Scale (IMS) did not receive previous psychometric validation. However, best practices for questionnaire translations were followed for adapting the scale for use within Spanish speakers [45]. Another limitation was the use of an unvalidated translation of the. Finally, the leading researcher was the one who carried out the entire process: providing training, conducting the interviews, managing the data from the questionnaires and performing the statistical analyses. Future research could prevent potential bias by training a trainer who is not part of the research team.

The present research suggests future research directions. For instance, the relevance of the follow-up and qualitative data should be necessary in these types of studies. The success of the online format motivates its continued improvement and research due to its clear time-space advantages. However, future research should explore the M×E’s impact of the in-person format. Considering the top-down perspective from which the M×E proposal is born, it would be important to include evaluations of the program’s impact on athletes indirectly. Mindfulness-based interventions should aim to be longer and more integrated into the team and club dynamics. Finally, given that the results of the present study indicate the suitability and effectiveness of applying the M×E, it is justified that future research replicates the study design in other groups and contexts. The M×E must continue to adapt in its application to practice, identifying more scenarios in which coaches, technical directors and other support staff can use the principles and strategies of mindfulness to improve not only their performance and well-being but also athletes’ environment.

Conclusions

This is the first study to evaluate the M×E impact on coaches, support staff and Technical Directors’ mindfulness ability, interpersonal mindfulness, and emotion regulation. Participants in the program significantly improved their mindfulness trait and interpersonal mindfulness and significantly decreased their difficulties in emotional regulation compared to the wait-list control group. Qualitative results showed the transference in emotional and attentional self-management skills associated with performance, interpersonal skills associated with leadership and healthy habits and professional and personal life balance associated with well-being. Follow-up measurements indicate that a reinforcement action should be done at least after six months. Furthermore, the results made it possible to reinforce and detect best practices in implementing a mindfulness-based program for this population. The positive results and the unanimous satisfaction with the M×E program postulate it as a reliable candidate for training coaches, support staff and sports leaders and invite sports organizations to consider its implementation.

Supporting information

Acknowledgments

We extend my heartfelt appreciation to everyone who contributed to the success of this scientific project.