3.1.1. Macro factors.

The Macro Factors component evaluates the institutional state of the region. The score of this component (3.1) is justified by the low records of natural phenomena that cause significant structural changes in cities and the environment, such as hurricanes and typhoons. However, in 2022, Brazil dropped from the 55th position it held in 2020 to the 81st position in the overall ranking of the Environmental Performance Index (EPI), which assessed 180 countries in 2022 [62, 63]. Although Brazil ranked 81st overall, it placed significantly lower in specific areas: species habitat index (142nd), ecosystem services (142nd), and climate policy (133rd) [63]. Regarding fisheries, the EPI scores from 0 (worst performance) to 100, with 100 indicating that no fishery products from a particular country come from overexploited or depleted stocks [63]. For fisheries, Brazil ranked 53rd, and fish stock status at 38th [63]. This ranking, conducted by Columbia and Yale Universities, showcases how countries are addressing improvements in health and the environment, progressing in ecosystem protection, and mitigating climate change. These data, combined with those from the present study, can serve as a basis for government and non-governmental actions, as well as guide investors interested in doing business in the country.

The effects of climate change, which result in the global decline of biomass and changes in distribution patterns, diversity, and reproduction [64, 65] of aquatic resources [66, 67], are factors that have raised concerns in the Amazon region. The increase in temperature leads to changes in precipitation patterns and prolonged dry periods, reducing water discharge and the consequent productivity of the Amazon River [68]. These alterations are likely to favor aquatic species with high thermal tolerance [68]. Recent studies have found that elevated temperatures in coral reef regions can accelerate the growth of Lutjanidae larvae, but survival rates are lower [69].

Fishing activities in coastal regions face significant challenges due to global warming [70]. Fluctuations in sea surface height, associated with events like El Niño and La Niña, impact ocean circulation and coastal dynamics, influencing the migration and reproduction of the red snapper [71]. However, a more in-depth analysis of the role of climatic and oceanographic factors in the populations of Lutjanidae and other reef species in the Equatorial Atlantic is crucial [72].

3.1.2. Property rights and responsibilities.

The component obtained a low score (2.1) due to the scoring of its two dimensions: Fishing access rights (3.3) and Fishing rights (1.0). The Property Rights and Responsibilities component assesses the level and nature of control individuals can exert over the resource, along with the opportunities Available in to establish and safeguard well-designed ecosystem-based resource management structures.

In Brazil, snapper vessels are legalized through a fishing license that grants access to the catch [60], however, the absence of catch quotas or limits hinders the negotiation power among fishing stakeholders, hindering incentives for conservation and optimizing economic gains. Studies affirm that the adoption of catch limits is a good strategy for recovering declining populations [73]. The implementation of annual catch quotas in fisheries has generated discussions and positive outcomes for the recovery of stocks of species important to both artisanal [74, 75] and industrial [76] fishing sectors. In developed countries like the USA, where both large-scale artisanal and industrial fishing are controlled by catch limits, the species Lutjanus campechanus has been able to recover its stock [11, 77]. In Brazil, most fisheries lack catch limits and instead rely on management measures such as closed seasons and fishing licenses. The only fishery with a catch quota is for mullet (Mugil sp), which takes into account regular population assessments and has shown good performance in stock recovery [75].

In the case of snapper, there are estimates of maximum sustainable catch; however, they are flawed due to the lack of systematic production data [10]. A study states that snapper catches exceeding 4,500 tons are at risk of overfishing and biological unsustainability [73]. In the Snapper Recovery Plan, the authors also suggest the inclusion of an annual catch limit that aligns with an assessment of annual catches in conjunction with the maximum size of the fishing fleet [13]. We believe that a comprehensive and reliable assessment of snapper stocks in Brazil could be achieved if the recovery plan were implemented.

3.1.3. Co-management.

The Co-management component measures the role played by local actors in determining fisheries management. This component obtained a low score (2) due to the lack of representation of the agents of the productive chain (professionals in general from the fishing sector) in the decision-making process that involves management. The performance of this sector in decision making meetings is minimal, which justifies the low score obtained in the Participation dimension (2.0). Therefore, the fisher class does not have an active and influential representation in the management policies, and the decisions are almost always taken by the owners of the processing companies and the owners of the largest number of boats. The Gender component also got an unsatisfactory score (1.2). The fishing system is predominantly male, and there are no women in any of the decisive stages of the fishery, or post-catch. However, there are women in the processing industry, Labor Participation in the Post-Fishing Sector (2.0), even if in smaller numbers than men. The metric Business Management Influence and Resource Management Influence also received a score of 2.0 because the sector does not have equivalence of positions held by men and women, with men being more representative. On the other hand, women have been occupying important government positions in fisheries planning in Brazil and, in addition, there are female fisheries scientists, denoting increased female participation in the processes that guide fishing activity [78, 79].

Gender equality is a fundamental principle of good environmental governance and sustainable development [80]. Although women and men participate in the entire fisheries value chain [81, 82], gender differences are often more prominent compared to other sectors [83], with women being widely recognized only for ancillary roles, those in support of fishing activities performed by men [84].

3.1.4. Management.

The Management component assesses how well the management system functions in collecting information from both science and stakeholders and integrating it into policymaking. This dimension obtained an intermediate score (3.1). The dimension that contributed the most to this value was the Management Inputs (3.5), as in the case of red snapper fishing, the government enforces restrictions when a vessel fails to provide its logbooks, for example [60].

In Brazil, effort control has always been a central strategy in fisheries management. Thus, red snapper fishing is primarily regulated by Interministerial Ordinance SEAP-PR/MMA No. 42, dated 27/07/2018, which establishes the fishing limit from the northern border of the state of Amapá to the states of Alagoas and Sergipe (São Francisco River mouth), starting from the 50 m isobath. This regulation also includes closed seasons, which are in effect from December 15 to April 30, within the fishing limits established in the regulation [60]. However, it is recognized by decision-makers that landing activities still occur even during the closed season.

The Data dimension obtained an average score (3.0), slightly above the averages of fisheries in developing countries and below T1. Red snapper fisheries suffer from a common problem in Brazil: lack of reliable data on fishery production. The scarcity of periodic socioeconomic information and stock status information is a major problem for resource implementation and quantitative control for fisheries management [85]. Although the FAO report [81] indicates a stable situation for the species during the last 20 years, some research warns about the possibility of overfishing due to the reduction in the size of captured individuals, age and weight in the samples collected [12, 13, 86, 87]. Even in fisheries of commercial interest, such as that of snapper, data, whether biological (age, growth and reproduction) or fisheries (catches, effort and yields) are insufficient for the projection of future scenarios even through data poor methods [88].

The Management Methods dimension had the worst score (1.0), below the average for DC (1.7) (Fig 5). All metrics included in this dimension (MPAs and sanctuaries, Spatial Management, Fishing Mortality Limits) had scores considered insufficient, because the red snapper fishery, even with spatial control of the 50 m isobath, occurs in a marine area without fisheries monitoring (either by enforcement or remotely) that promotes species conservation and data collection to allow periodic estimates of fishing mortality and stock status. Thus, as there is no effective monitoring of catches (even though we have a flawed mapping system) and satellite monitoring of vessels, there are no parameters that can substantiate limits or reference points.

3.1.5. Post-Harvest.

The Post-Harvest dimension assesses the marketing conditions of fishery products and obtained an average score of 3.6. The Markets and Market Institutions metric scored 3.3 due to North Coast snapper being predominantly destined for the international market (Bentes et al., 2017) with established buyers, which directly contributed to the low scores assigned to the Landings Pricing System (2.0) and Buyer Numbers metrics (2.0). The landing pricing system is important for both fishermen, as it directly affects their income, and for buyers and seafood traders who utilize this information to determine prices for the end consumers.

This behavior is common and found in other activities where the target resources are export commodities [34]. However, it is recognized that a small percentage of the production is directed to the domestic market, particularly specimens that do not fit the "export type" (which requires snappers weighing less than 900g, among other sanitary requirements). Notably, the current production of red snapper is primarily aimed at the Asian market, which is considered less demanding than the European and North American markets [56].

The Infrastructure dimension obtained a good score (4) similar to the top T10 world fisheries and other large-scale artisanal and industrial fisheries of the Brazilian North coast [34]. The processing enterprises are strategically located, have their own unloading ports, good operational and distribution structure, are connected to the electricity grid, and have their own generators, which guarantee the quality of the frozen products [34].

3.2.1. Ecological indicator.

The ecological performance obtained the lowest score among the production averages (2.3). Compared to T10 and DC, the red snapper FPI averages are at unsatisfactory levels for a fishery considered sustainable (Fig 7). Results with averages below the global T10 and DC were also obtained in FPI studies for other Brazilian fisheries, such as brown shrimp Penaeus subtilis [34] and Acoupa weakfish Cynoscion acoupa [35].

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Fig 7. Average Output scores of the artisanal red snapper fishery Lutjanus purpureus (red) compared to the top 10 world fisheries (T10—blue) and to Developing Countries (DC—gray).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300820.g007

One of the main reasons for this unsustainability is the average catch size of specimens (26 cm) [10], which is smaller than the established size of first sexual maturation, which occurs from a total length of 32 cm [10, 89]. Studies consider the possibility of growth overfishing, due to the reduction of the size of individuals, age and weight in fishing samplings [12, 86, 87, 90].

The possible overexploitation of the species contributed to the low scores for the metrics Percentage of Overfished Stocks (3.0), Degree of Overfishing—Stock Status (2.0), and Declining, Stable, or Rebuilding Stock (1.0), included in the Ecologically Sustainable Fisheries dimension. The percentage of stocks considered overfished reflects the extent to which overfishing has compromised the ability to generate sustainable livelihoods [24].

Direct quantitative information on the red snapper stock is still a gap in knowledge. The lack of systematized biological data is one of the main factors that make it difficult to assess stock health and may hide species that already face a situation of fishing vulnerability. Demersal species are more vulnerable to overexploitation due to their life history characteristics, such as long life span, slow growth and late sexual maturation [31, 91, 92].

Notably, changes in the age structure of the population have been reported, due to the high percentage of juveniles in landings and the decline in annual production and CPUE [10, 13], however, the fishing industry shows little concern with a scenario of declining production, since there is reluctance in the sector to accept management instructions based on scientific studies. Perhaps this opposition occurs because, even with the loss of market (USA and Europe), the sector still exports to less demanding markets.

Another important metric for ecological analysis that scored poorly in the snapper fishery system was Illegal, Unregulated or Unreported Landings (2.0). It assesses the proportion of landings from the managed stock using gear, areas, or methods that are considered illegal, are not reported, or are outside the regulatory framework [24]. Although the Normative Instruction 7 of 2004 of the Ministry of Environment, establishes standards for the capture of red snapper, even assigning a specific license, illegal vessels operating in the system are frequent and the quantity is unknown. It is assumed that there is almost double the number of licensed vessels acting clandestinely [13, 42]. These illegal practices pose serious risks to sustainability and are the main drivers of overfishing in Brazil [35, 92].

3.2.2. Economical indicator.

The economic indicator scored poorly (2.8) (Fig 6), with all included dimensions scoring below 4 and lower than the T10 and DC, even lower than in other Brazilian fisheries, such as the brown shrimp [34] and Acoupa weakfish fisheries [35]. The best scores were assigned to the Product Form (3.8), Trade (3.5) and Post-Catch Performance (3.0) dimensions. The Risk (1.6), Fishing (2.5) and Fishing Assets (2.8) dimensions were the most unsatisfactory in the analyses. These dimensions reflect the sources of risk in the fishery that may inhibit economic investment allocated to the fishery in addition to indicating the aspects that are being essential to generate sustainable income from landings [24].

The annual volatility of total revenue is a measure that explains the degree of economic risk in a fishery as well as the volatility of landings [24]. The results of the present work show that the red snapper fishery has high price volatility and economic risks that can cause future problems such as investment uncertainty. Directly, the context of risk is also reflected in the lack of reference points that guide investments in the snapper fishery. Stock assessments that could allow for specific forms of management such as global quotas are non-existent due to the lack of reliable production and effort data.

Despite the lack of specific guidelines, Brazil maintains subsidies that foster fishing activity. The program to reduce diesel oil costs through tax exemption lacks a systematic evaluation of stocks and fisheries. Studies categorize fuel subsidies as detrimental due to the stimulation of increased effort and the resulting contribution to overfishing [93] also impacting long-term social and economic benefits [94].

The main importer of red snapper from Brazil was the USA [55, 56]. However, the country has implemented the Seafood Import Monitoring Program (SIMP), which prevents the entry of illegal products or products of unsustainable ecological origin [95]. In this scenario, the snapper fishery, regarding all the aspects that make it unsustainable and without any optimistic projection of maintaining the activity, has been losing space in many important markets. The red snapper industry remains a sector that is not very open to market changes and, like the Brazilian brown shrimp industry, has looked to other, less demanding markets. However, this is not a good long-term strategy, as international markets are increasingly demanding eco-labeled seafood [96]. We suggest that the industry seek to conform to the standards of the Fishery Improvement Projects (FIPs) program, which are multi-stakeholder initiatives aimed at encouraging sustainable fisheries. In addition, complying with the measures already proposed in the red snapper Recovery Plan [13], adopting catch limits [73], catching individuals larger than the estimated L50 [10, 97] may generate positive impacts on the credibility of the activity and help the faster recovery of stocks.

3.2.3. Community indicator.

The Community indicator assesses the socioeconomic conditions that the fishery provides to the community [24]. In the present study, the average score (3.9) was close to the DC score (3.8) and below the T10 score (4.3).

Currently, the red snapper fleet employs approximately 2,500 people, considering only those workers who work directly inside the licensed vessels. The crew consists of up to 12 crewmembers per vessel, these being the master, professional fish cooler, vessel driver, and fishermen [42]. Crew remuneration differs according to the type of fishing gear used (‘pargueira line’ and ‘manzuá’). In vessels with ‘manzuá’, payment is made based on production, where the boat master is the best paid and holds 15%, driver 4%, professional fish cooler—responsible for gutting and cooling the fish—3.5% and 2% for each fisherman [13]. In longline fisheries, the payment is fixed between 11% and 15% for the master, 4.5% to 5% for the driver, 3% to 4% for the professional fish cooler, and fishermen are paid per kilogram of fish [13]. In addition, the fishermen have a labor contract, which guarantees them labor rights. In both cases, large-scale artisanal fishing for red snapper grants those involved a higher income than in other artisanal fisheries, offering a better quality of life, with access to education, health, and leisure. In fact, fishing provides those involved with good economic returns, taking into consideration that most fishermen have only a basic education, unlike workers in the processing and sales industries.

The life quality of Amazonian fishermen is traditionally discussed in its different approaches [98], however, the human perception of quality of life requires an interdisciplinary analysis, since it relies on a diverse set of knowledge to achieve a broad understanding of the subject of study [99]. Based on this assumption, quality of life studies involving industrial and artisanal fishermen, as well as indigenous people, ‘quilombolas’ (isolated traditional population descendant of African slaves), extractives, and riverbank dwellers, must respect the perception of the way of life existing in each group. In the case of red snapper fishermen, even admitting the subjectivity of the concept of quality of life, and considering the better incomes obtained by fishing, it is admitted that they have better conditions than local artisanal fishermen [12].

The results showed that the Management Returns for the red snapper fishery are good (4.0). This means that vessel owners, ship owners and masters have socioeconomic benefits by receiving most of the profits. On a hierarchical scale, Labor Return measures the fishermen’s earnings, opportunities, and social status. In this aspect, the dimension scored 3.3, meaning that the actors involved also have basic social access that small-scale artisanal fishers do not have [100].

For Health and sanitation, Local Labor and Career was assigned a score of 4. A socioeconomically successful fishery provides access to health and safety at work for its employees and generates stable employment in the long term. In the red snapper fishery, like other fisheries, many data needed to assess social and economic performance are lacking; information on prices, employment, effort, working conditions, and many other factors are not consistently collected for systematic cross-comparison [24, 25].

The large-scale artisanal fishery for red snapper is a fishing activity that contributes significantly to the Brazilian economy. This study highlights that the main positive aspects are related to community well-being, providing more equitable remuneration for those involved and thereby encouraging improved performance in work development and quality of life. However, it is important to note that these participants are often excluded from the decision-making process, lack representation in crucial meetings, and may be unaware of the level of vulnerability inherent in the fishing activity itself.

Although the FPI tool has limitations [31], the results were able to point out important problems that put the permanence of the activity and the maintenance of the species L. purpureus at risk, they are: (i) fishing of juveniles; (ii) illegal vessels; (iii) lack of collaboration of the fishing sector with science and (iv) unreliability of the data provided. All the above points make the red snapper fishery on the Amazon continental shelf socioecologically unsustainable in the long term.

Although the current Interministerial Ordinance No. 42/2018 is thorough in some aspects for the capture permission, the red snapper fishing activity is not strictly inspected, having as the only monitoring device of the fishing areas the PREPS, which only monitors boats that own and activate the equipment, which is not the case of illegal vessels operating in the Brazilian North and Northeast areas.

Although the red snapper productive sector has cooperated with academia and researchers for the elaboration of the Recovery Plan in 2018, it is still evident the reluctance of the sector to agree with what is proposed, as well as, to adopt sustainable fishing measures. Many information gaps about the activity are the result of ineffective management cycles that could be partially or completely remedied through more inclusive and adaptive management policies.

The present study is the first to provide a joint assessment of three interconnected sectors of the northern Brazilian red snapper fishery, showing, even with limited data, how the snapper fishery is developing and heading towards an uncertain future. Fisheries collapses seem to have become common for some world fisheries. Data indicate typical patterns emerging from analysis of catch series during the period preceding collapses: smooth collapse (33%), i.e. a long steady decline, erratic collapse (45%), i.e. a decline after several ups and downs, and plateau collapse (21%), i.e. a sudden decline after a relatively long and stable persistence of high level catches [101].

Fisheries like the red snapper fishery described in this paper exist because there is a profitable trade behind it that drives a whole value chain that perpetuates itself over time even with clear signs of depletion. There are only clandestine boats because there are industries that feed this trade based on a very profitable cumulative profit. The current underestimation—mainly by the fishing sector—of an ever-increasing fishing efficiency, associated with the lack of resilience of the red snapper stocks and the governmental mechanisms of fishing subsidies, will probably promote a collapse of the red snapper system in a relatively short time.

Proper quantification of effective fishing effort—especially within the industries that make the entire system dynamic viable—and the effects of environmental variability in the face of climate change, must be an important step, coupled with restoration of depleted stocks, if we really decide to bring the snapper fishery back to viability, and reduce impacts on the Amazon reef.