https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5176-0040
Figures
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) widely participate in plant growth and development. The miR396 family, one of the most conserved miRNA families, remains poorly understood in sorghum. To reveal the evolution and expression pattern of Sbi-miR396 gene family in sorghum, bioinformatics analysis and target gene prediction were performed on the sequences of the Sbi-miR396 gene family members. The results showed that five Sbi-miR396 members, located on chromosomes 4, 6, and 10, were identified at the whole-genome level. The secondary structure analysis showed that the precursor sequences of all five Sbi-miR396 potentially form a stable secondary stem–loop structure, and the mature miRNA sequences were generated on the 5′ arm of the precursors. Sequence analysis identified the mature sequences of the five sbi-miR396 genes were high identity, with differences only at the 1st, 9th and 21st bases at the 5’ end. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that Sbi-miR396a, Sbi-miR396b, and Sbi-miR396c were clustered into Group I, and Sbi-miR396d and Sbi-miR396e were clustered into Group II, and all five sbi-miR396 genes were closely related to those of maize and foxtail millet. Expression analysis of different tissue found that Sbi-miR396d/e and Sbi-miR396a/b/c were preferentially and barely expressed, respectively, in leaves, flowers, and panicles. Target gene prediction indicates that the growth-regulating factor family members (SbiGRF1/2/3/4/5/6/7/8/10) were target genes of Sbi-miR396d/e. Thus, Sbi-miR396d/e may affect the growth and development of sorghum by targeting SbiGRFs. In addition, expression analysis of different tissues and developmental stages found that all Sbi-miR396 target genes, SbiGRFs, were barely expressed in leaves, root and shoot, but were predominantly expressed in inflorescence and seed development stage, especially SbiGRF1/5/8. Therefore, inhibition the expression of sbi-miR396d/e may increase the expression of SbiGRF1/5/8, thereby affecting floral organ and seed development in sorghum. These findings provide the basis for studying the expression of the Sbi-mir396 family members and the function of their target genes.
Citation: Wang H, Zhang Y, Liang D, Zhang X, Fan X, Guo Q, et al. (2023) Genome‑wide identification and characterization of miR396 family members and their target genes GRF in sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) moench). PLoS ONE 18(5): e0285494. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285494
Editor: Mojtaba Kordrostami, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN
Received: January 31, 2023; Accepted: April 25, 2023; Published: May 10, 2023
Copyright: © 2023 Wang et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper.
Funding: This work was supported by the Special Project of Molecular Breeding Platform of Minor Crops of Shanxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences (YGC2019FZ5), the Shanxi Province Excellent Doctoral Work Award-Scientific Research Project (SXBYKY2022071), the Shanxi Province Brewing Sorghum Seed Industry Innovation and Superior Varieties Joint Research (2022), the Shanxi Province Modern Agricultural Minor Crops Industry Technology System (2022-03), and the Shanxi Provincial Key R & D Technology (International Cooperation) Project Grant (201803D421016). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Introduction
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) is one of the world’s top five grain crops, along with maize, rice, wheat, and barley. It is a staple food for more than 500 million people worldwide [1–3]. Owing to its excellent adaptability to heat and drought stress, sorghum is a key crop for safeguarding food security in response to climate change [4]. Recently, sorghum has also been widely used for different purposes, for example, as feed and forage, in brewing, and in biomass energy production, which has a significant effect on global agricultural production [5–8]. In recent years, with the continuous development of animal husbandry and brewery industries, sorghum production has struggled to meet the market demand [9, 10]. Crop yield is influenced by various factors, of which plant architecture has a significant effect [11, 12]. An ideal plant architecture is beneficial for a crop plant to develop an optimal shape for light exposure, which enables it to fully capture and use solar energy throughout the growth period and consequently maximizes the economic yield [11]. Plant architecture studies mainly focus on tillering and stem, leaf, panicle types, which are the traits determining crop yield [13, 14].
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of endogenous non-coding small RNAs commonly found in eukaryotic organisms, generally consisting of 20–22 nucleotides [15]. In plants, miRNA bind to the complementary sites within target mRNA to repress gene expression at the posttranscriptional level, thereby regulating plant growth, development, and response to adverse stress [16–18]. The miR396 family, a conserved miRNA family in plants, has been identified in crops such as Arabidopsis, rice, wheat, tobacco, and soybean [19–23]. Most, but not all, growth-regulating factor genes (GRFs) are the target genes of miR396 [24, 25]. miR396 negatively regulates the expression of GRFs to participate in the regulation of leaf and floral organ morphogenesis, root and stem tissue elongation, and grain size and number, ultimately influencing plant architecture and crop yield. In Arabidopsis, overexpression of miR396 decreases the mRNA levels of target GRFs, resulting in phenotypes such as short roots, small leaves, reduced number of petals and stamens, pistils with a single carpel, small siliques, and abnormal growing points at the tip of roots [25–27]. In rice, either plants overexpressing miR396 or mutants carrying an insertionally inactivated GRF gene exhibit morphological changes such as retarded growth, reduced plant height, shortened roots, and narrowed leaves, whereas inhibition of miR396 expression alters the panicle structure [28–30]. Furthermore, rice miR396 (OsmiR396d) diminishes both gibberellin biosynthesis and signaling by inhibiting OsGRF6 expression, which reduces plant height; it also relieves the inhibition of brassinolide signaling through suppression of OsGRF4, thereby positively regulating leaf angle [31]. The OsmiR396–OsGRF3/4/8 module effectively regulates grain size and yield [14, 21, 32–34], and the OsmiR396–OsGRF6/10 module regulates floral organ development. For example, rice plants overexpressing OsmiR396 or osgrf6/10 double mutant exhibit open husks, long sterile lemmas, and altered floral organ morphology, whereas rice plants with suppressed expression of OsmiR396 or overexpression of OsGRF6 exhibit a considerable increase in the number of secondary branches per panicle and glumes [35].
In addition to their essential roles in plant growth and development, miR396 and its target GRF genes also enhance plant responses required to tolerate adverse stress conditions. Overexpression of miR396 increases drought tolerance in crop plants. A previous study reports that miR396a/b-overexpressing Arabidopsis plants displayed a narrow leaf phenotype, with lower stomatal density and decreased transpiration rate; their survival rate was remarkably higher than that of empty vector controls after 14 d of drought treatment [25]. In tobacco lines overexpressing miR396a-5p, expression of NtGRFs is inhibited, osmoregulation and drought tolerance are enhanced, and reactive oxygen species levels are lowered [36]. miR396 mutation may increase crop tolerance to saline–alkali and nitrogen deficiency stress [37–40]. Under nitrogen-deficient conditions, osmir396ef double mutants exhibit higher grain yield and aboveground biomass. Recent research has also found that miR396–GRF markedly increases the regeneration efficiency of explants [41, 42].
The miR396-mediated GRF regulatory module (miR396–GRF) has shown potential application value in improving plant type, crop yield, and stress resistance and increasing the efficiency of plant genetic transformation. However, to date, members of the sorghum miR396 (Sbi-miR396) family have not been identified and functionally analyzed. In the present study, bioinformatics methods were used to analyze the chromosomal distribution, phylogenetic relationships, base conservation, secondary structure, and target gene expression of the Sbi-miR396 family. The findings provide molecular evidence for the evolution and biological functions of the miR396 family in sorghum.
Materials and methods
Genome-wide identification and sequence analysis of Sbi-miR396 and its target genes
The precursor sequences, mature sequences, and chromosomal localization information of the Sbi-miR396 family members were downloaded from the miRBase database (https://www.mirbase.org/ftp.shtml). Base conservation of these sequences were analyzed using WebLogo 3 (http://weblogo.threeplusone.com/create.cgi) [40]. The sorghum whole-genome gff file (Sorghum_bicolor_NCBIv3.54.gff3) was downloaded from EnsemblPlants (http://plants.ensembl.org/Sorghum_bicolor/Info/Index). Physical position of each Sbi-miR396 family gene was extracted from this file, and chromosomal localization map was constructed using Gene Location Visualize from GTF/GFF in TBtools software [43]. The secondary stem–loop structure of the Sbi-miR396 precursors was predicted using RNAfold (http://rna.tbi.univie.ac.at./cgi-bin/RNAfold.cgi). A folding algorithm with basic options was employed to select the minimum free energy and partition function.
The target genes of Sbi-miR396 were predicted using psRNATarget (http://plantgrn.noble.org/psRNATarget/) with default parameter values. Genes with the maximum expectation value ≤1.5 were selected as target genes, and the sites of interaction between Sbi-miR396 and candidate target genes were analyzed. In addition, we estimated the molecular weight (MW) and isoelectric point (pI) of the candidate target proteins using ExPASy (https://web.expasy.org/protparam/), the functional annotation was performed using the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) database (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/), and multiple alignment of the amino acid sequences were performed using DNAMAN 6.0 software.
Phylogenetic analysis of Sbi-miR396 and its target gene SbiGRFs
The miR396 precursor sequences of maize (Zea mays L.), foxtail millet (Setaria italica [L.] P. Beauv), and rice (Oryza sativa L.) were downloaded from the miRBase database. The GRF protein sequences of maize, foxtail millet, rice, and Arabidopsis were downloaded from PlantTFDB database (http://planttfdb.gao-lab.org/index.php?sp=Sbi). Multiple alignment of miR396 precursor sequences and GRF protein sequences were performed using ClustalW with default parameters. Phylogenetic trees were then constructed using the neighbor-joining method of MEGA v7.0 software with 1000 bootstraps and other default parameters.
Sequence and structural analysis of SbiGRF gene family targeted by Sbi-miR396
Conserved motifs of SbiGRFs were analyzed using the multiple expectation maximization for motif elicitation (MEME, http://meme-suite.org/). Gene structure information was extracted from the sorghum whole-genome gff file. These identified motifs and gene structures were further visualized by TBtools.
Expression analysis of Sbi-miR396 and its target gene SbiGRFs
Published RNA-seq data from different tissues or developmental stages of sorghum were downloaded from the PmiREN database (https://www.pmiren.com/browsehref4?wzid=209&mbt=5&type=sRNA-Seq#zqnav) and the Expression Atlas database (https://www.ebi.ac.uk/gxa/home) for the expression analysis of Sbi-miR396 and its target gene SbiGRFs, respectively. The PmiREN database contained sorghum leaves, flowers, and panicles. The Expression Atlas database included different tissues and developmental stages, roots, shoots, leaves at seedling developmental stage; pistils and pollen at booting stage; inflorescences during the developmental process; and seeds during the developmental process. The expression level of Sbi-miR396 and SbiGRFs were estimated using the fragments per kilobase per million reads value (FPKM), and heatmaps were displayed by Tbtools.
RNA isolation and qRT-PCR analysis
Three materials were used for qRT-PCR analysis, namely, 10480A, L17R and Jinnuo 3. Total RNA was extracted from young spikes of the inflorescence developmental stage and early development seeds using the RNAprep Pure Plant Kit (TIANGEN, Beijing, China) following the manufacturer’s instructions. The purity and content of total RNA were detected by 1.0% agarose gel electrophoresis and NanoDrop 2000 (Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA). First-strand cDNA of miRNA and mRNA were synthesized with the Mir-X miRNA First-Strand Synthesis Kit and the PrimeScriptTM RT reagent Kit with gDNA Eraser (Perfect Real Time) (Takara, Beijing, China), respectively. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) of Sbi-miR396 and SbiGRFs were performed with three technical and three biological replicates in the LightCyclerTM 96 (Roche, Basel) using the Mir-X miRNA qRT-PCR TB Green Kit and the TB Green Premix Ex TaqTM II (Tli RNaseH Plus) (Takara, Beijing, China), respectively. The U6 and SbiGAPDH gene were used as internal reference. The qRT-PCR reaction system of Sbi-mi396 contained 10 μL 2×TB Green Advantage Premix, 0.4 μL (10 μM) RT-primer, 0.4 μL (10 μM) 5’ primer (S1 Table), 2 μL cDNA template, 0.4 μL 50× Rox Reference Dye II, and 6.8 μL ddH2O. The reaction procedure was as follows: denaturation at 95°C for 10 s, followed by 40 cycles at 95°C for 5 s and 60°C for 20 s. The qRT-PCR reaction system of SbiGRFs contained 10 μL 2× TB Green Premix Ex Taq, 0.8 μL (10 μM) forward primer, 0.8 μL (10 μM) reverse primer (S1 Table), 2 μL cDNA template, 0.4 μL 50× Rox Reference Dye II, and 6.0 μL ddH2O. The reaction procedure was as follows: denaturation at 95°C for 3 min, followed by 40 cycles at 95°C for 10 s and 60°C for 30 s. After the reaction was completed, relative expression levels were calculated using the△CT method. Statistical significance was calculated using SPSS 19.0 software (SPSS Corp., Chicago, IL).
Results
Sequences and chromosomal localization of the Sbi-miR396 family members
According to the miRBase database, the miR396 family comprises five members in the sorghum genome, designated as Sbi-miR396a, b, c, d, and e (Table 1). The precursor sequences of the five Sbi-miR396 members consisted of 88–186 bases. Bases at positions 1–22 at the 5′ end were highly conserved in the precursor sequences, whereas bases at other positions were less conserved (Fig 1A).
(A) Precursor sequence; (B) Mature sequence; (C) Star sequence.
Mature Sbi-miR396s were all produced from the highly conserved bases at positions 1–22 of the precursor sequences. The mature sequences of Sbi-miR396a, b, and c each contained 21 bases, and Sbi-miR396d and e each contained 22 bases. All 21 bases were highly conserved between Sbi-miR396a and Sbi-miR396b. Excluding a dissimilar base at position 1 at the 5′ end, 21 bases were highly conserved between Sbi-miR396d and Sbi-miR396e. Excluding a dissimilar base at position 1 at the 3′ end, Sbi-miR396c were highly conserved with Sbi-miR396a and Sbi-miR396b for 20 bases. Sbi-miR396d and Sbi-miR396e contained an additional base, G, at position 9 from the 5′ end, compared with Sbi-miR396a and Sbi-miR396b (Fig 1B, Table 1). The star sequences of all five Sbi-miR396 members comprised 21 bases. Of these, bases at positions 1, 3–6, 8–11, and 17–20 from the 5′ end were highly conserved; bases at positions 2, 12, 15, and 21 were moderately conserved; and bases at the remaining positions were poorly conserved (Fig 1C, Table 1).
The chromosomal localization results indicated that Sbi-miR396a, Sbi-miR396c, and Sbi-miR396d were all located on chromosome 4, whereas Sbi-miR396b and Sbi-miR396e were located on chromosomes 10 and 6, respectively (Fig 2, Table 1).
Secondary structure of the Sbi-miR396 precursor sequences
The precursor sequences of the five Sbi-miR396 family members differed in length; Sbi-miR396e was the longest at 186 bp, and Sbi-miR396a was the shortest at 88 bp. The secondary structure prediction results showed that a stable secondary stem–loop structure could be formed in all precursor sequences. All mature miRNAs were located on the 5′ arm of the corresponding precursors and were highly conserved (Fig 3).
Phylogenetic evolution of the Sbi-miR396 family members
Phylogenetic analysis of the precursor sequences revealed that the miR396 family members of sorghum, maize, foxtail millet, and rice were divided into three major groups (Groups I–III). Sbi-miR396a, Sbi-miR396b, and Sbi-miR396c clustered in Group I, whereas Sbi-miR396d and Sbi-miR396e clustered in Group II. Specifically, the miR396 family members in sorghum were closely related to those in maize and foxtail millet, exhibiting clusters such as Sbi-miR396a/Zma-miR396g/Sit-miR396c/Zma-miR396a and Sbi-miR396e/Sti-miR396b/Zma-miR396c, but distantly related to those in rice (Fig 4).
Gene prefixtion Sbi, Zma, Sit, and Osa represent Sorghum bicolor, Zea mays, Setaria italica, and Oryza sativa, respectively.
Tissue-specific expression of Sbi-miR396 family members
Tissue-specific expression analysis revealed that Sbi-miR396a and Sbi-miR396b were barely expressed in young leaves, flowers, and young panicles of sorghum. Sbi-miR396c was slightly expressed in young leaves but not expressed in flowers and young panicles. In contrast, Sbi-miR396d and Sbi-miR396e were preferentially expressed in young leaves, flowers, and young panicles; their highest expression levels were observed in young leaves, followed by those in the flowers (Fig 5).
Prediction and physicochemical features of target genes of Sbi-miR396
Taking into account the minimal expression of Sbi-miR396a/b/c and preferential expression of Sbi-miR396d/e in various tissues of sorghum, subsequent analyses were performed only for Sbi-miR396d and Sbi-miR396e. Table 2 lists the predicted target genes of Sbi-miR396. Sbi-miR396d and Sbi-miR396e were found to target the same nine SbiGRF family members, SbiGRF1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 10. The target sites of the SbiGRFs were all located in the third or second exon. The protein sequences of the nine SbiGFRs ranged from 271 to 601 amino acids in length, with a theoretical isoelectric point of 4.73–10.03 and molecular weight of 28.31–62.48 kDa.
Phylogeny and classification of SbiGRFs
The GRF families of maize, foxtail millet, rice, and Arabidopsis had 15, 10, 12, and 9 members, respectively. The protein sequences of these GRFs and the nine GRFs of sorghum were used to construct a phylogenetic tree to analyze the evolutionary relationships among the GRF families. The 55 GRFs clustered into five groups (Group I–V; Fig 6). Sorghum, maize, foxtail millet, and rice GRFs were distributed in Group I, II, IV, and V. Arabidopsis GRFs were distributed in Group I, II, III, and IV. All GRF members in Group V were derived from dicotyledons. The results suggest that Group I, II, and IV already existed prior to differentiation of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants, whereas Group V emerged after differentiation of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants. The phylogenetic tree suggested that the GRF family of sorghum was most closely related to that of maize and foxtail millet, followed by rice, and most distantly related to that of the dicotyledon, Arabidopsis.
Gene prefixtion Sbi, Zma, Sit, Osa, and At represent Sorghum bicolor, Zea mays, Setaria italica, Oryza sativa, and Arabidopsis thaliana, respectively.
Gene structure of SbiGRFs
The conserved protein sequences of the GRF family genes, putative targets of Sbi-miR396, were analyzed using MEME, which identified a total of five motifs. The N terminus of nine SbiGFR proteins contained intact conserved domains, WRC (Motif1) and QLQ (Motif2); in all cases, the QLQ domain was located in front of the WRC domain (Fig 7). In addition to the conserved amino acids Q/Gln-L/Leu-Q/GLn, the QLQ domain also comprised the hydrophobic, acidic amino acid residues F/Phe, Y/Tyr, L/Leu, E/Glu, and P/Pro. The WRC domain contained the conserved amino acid residues W/Trp-R/Arg-C/Cys and the C3H motif consisting of three C/Cys and one H/His, immediately followed by the conserved RSRK-VE region (Fig 8). Furthermore, SbiGRF3–5 contained Motif3, 4, and 5; SbiGRF1 and 2 contained Motif3 and 4; SbiGRF6 and 8 contained Motif4; and SbiGRF10 contained Motif3.
(A) WRC domain; (B) QLQ domain.
Gene structure analysis revealed that the nine SbiGRF genes differed in the number of exons. SbiGRF2 and 10 contained two exons, SbiGRF1 and 5 contained three exons each, SbiGRF4 contained five exons, whereas the remaining four SbiGRF genes contained four exons each (Fig 7).
Expression analysis of SbiGRFs in different tissues and developmental stages
miR396 affects plant growth and development by regulating the expression of its target genes SbiGRFs. We used online available transcriptome data of three tissues (leaf, shoot and root) and eight developmental stages of inflorescence and seed (pistil and pollen at booting stage, Early inflorescence, Emerging inflorescence, Inflorescence size 1 to 5 millimeter, Inflorescence size 1 to 10 millimeter, Inflorescence size 1 to 2 centimeter, seed 5 days after pollination, seed 10 days after pollination) to investigate the expression patterns of SbiGRFs genes (Fig 9). It was found that SbiGRFs were predominantly expressed in inflorescence and seed. The expression patterns of SbiGRFs exhibited remarkable tissue specificity, indicating that they are mainly involved in regulating the growth and development of floral organs and seeds in sorghum. Specifically, at the seedling developmental stage, the expression levels of SbiGRFs were considerably low across in all tissues, especially in seedling leaves. At booting stage, SbiGRFs were barely expressed in pollen but preferentially expressed in pistils. During inflorescence development stage, the expression levels of SbiGRFs were higher after than before inflorescence emergence. Before inflorescence emergence (I1), SbiGRF6/8 were expressed at slightly higher levels, whereas after inflorescence emergence(I3, I4 and I5), SbiGRF5/8 were expressed at relatively higher levels, followed by SbiGRF1/3/4/6, and SbiGRF2/10 showed low expression levels. During seed development stage, the expression levels of SbiGRFs in early developing seeds (P5S) were higher than those in intermediate developing seeds (P10S). In addition, SbiGRF1/3/5/6/8 showed higher expression levels than other SbiGRFs.
SR, SL, and SS represent root, leaf, and shoot at seedling developmental stage, respectively; Bpi and Bpo represent pistil and pollen at booting stage; I1, Early inflorescence; I2, Emerging inflorescence; I3, Inflorescence size 1 to 5 millimeter; I4, Inflorescence size 1 to 10 millimeter; I5, Inflorescence size 1 to 2 centimeter; P5S and P10S represent seed at 5 and 10 days after pollination.
To further clarify the role of Sbi-miR396 and their target gene SbiGRFs in inflorescence and seed development, qRT-PCR was performed from young spikes of the inflorescence developmental stage and early development seeds in three sorghum varieties, and the results are shown in Fig 10. Consistent with the RNA-seq results, Sbi-miR396a, Sbi-miR396b, and Sbi-miR396c were expressed at low levels or not expressed in the young spikes of the inflorescence developmental stage and early development seeds, while Sbi-miR396d and Sbi-miR396e were preferentially expressed (Fig 10A). Moreover, Sbi-miR396d was expressed slightly higher than Sbi-miR396e at both developmental stages. Nine Sbi-miR396 target genes, SbiGRFs, were expressed at both developmental stages, and most SbiGRFs were expressed slightly higher in the inflorescence development stage than in the seed development stage (Fig 10B). In sorghum varieties, SbiGRF8 exhibited the highest expression level, followed by SbiGRF1 and SbiGRF5. SbiGRF9 and SbiGRF4 showed the lowest expression level. SbiGRF2, SbiGRF3, SbiGRF6, and SbiGRF10 showed intermediate expression level. Furthermore, SbiGRF8 and SbiGRF1 were expressed at about two times that of SbiGRF5 and about ten times that of SbiGRF9 and SbiGRF4. These findings suggest that Sbi-miR396d/e and SbiGRF8/1/5 play a major role in inflorescence and seed development stage in sorghum.
Expression analysis of Sbi-miR396 (A) and SbiGRFs (B) in inflorescence and seed development. 1, young spikes of the inflorescence developmental stage; 2, early development seeds.
Discussion
Sorghum exhibits resistance to environmental stresses such as drought stress, flood stress, saline-alkali stress, nutrient deficiency, and heat stress. Consequently, it has comparative advantages when grown in fields with poor ecological and site conditions. However, compared with major crops such as rice and wheat or model crops such as Arabidopsis, sorghum has received less research attention regarding its molecular biology, especially miRNAs. To date, the miRBase database includes miR396s present in 52 species, with 221 mature sequences and 170 precursor sequences. Five plant species exhibit a high number of mature miR396 sequences, namely soybean (n = 15), rice (n = 13), maize (n = 13), Brachypodium distachyon (n = 10), and Aegilops tauschii (n = 10). Other plants such as wheat, sugarcane, and papaya have only one mature miR396 sequence each. These findings indicate that the number of mature miR396 sequences does not correspond exactly to the number of precursor sequences and some precursor sequences can produce miR396 at both ends of the hairpin. Different mature sequences may originate from the same precursor sequence; in contrast, the same mature sequence may be derived from various precursor sequences. In the present study, it was found that the Sbi-miR396 family comprises five mature and five precursor sequences in sorghum. Each mature Sbi-miR396 is derived from the highly conserved positions 1–22 at the 5′ end of the corresponding precursor sequence. The five mature Sbi-miR396 sequences are highly similar to with each other; except for three base differences between Sbi-miR396c and Sbi-miR396d, only one or no base difference was observed between any two Sbi-miR396 sequences.
The miR396 family shows high evolutionary conservation across species [44]. The present findings indicate that the miR396 precursor sequences of sorghum have a close evolutionary relationship with those of foxtail millet and maize, suggesting that the evolutionary relationship of the miR396 gene families is consistent with the phylogenetic relationship among the species themselves. The Arabidopsis miR396 family includes four members, Ath-miR396a-5p, Ath-miR396a-3p, Ath-miR396b-5p, and Ath-miR396b-3p. The sequence alignment analysis demonstrated that the five Sbi-miR396 sequences of sorghum have the same forms as the two mature sequences in Arabidopsis, Ath-miR396a-5p and Ath-miR396b-5p, indicating that the mature miR396 sequences from the conserved region at the 5′ end are consistent between species, in agreement with the findings reported by Shan et al. [45]. Tissue-specific expression analysis revealed extremely low expression levels of Sbi-miR396a, Sbi-miR396b, and Sbi-miR396c in all tissues of sorghum, in contrast to the preferential expression of Sbi-miR396d and Sbi-miR396e in young leaves, flowers, and young panicles. The phylogenetic evolution analysis showed that Sbi-miR396d and Sbi-miR396e and Osa-miR396e and Osa-miR396f were clustered in the same group (Group II), so we speculated that they may have similar functions. Zhang et al. [39] reported that Osa-miR396f double mutant significantly increased panicle number, grain length, grain width, and yield compared with WT. In this study, qRT-PCR results showed Sbi-miR396a, Sbi-miR396b, and Sbi-miR396c were expressed at low levels or not expressed in the young spikes of the inflorescence developmental stage and early development seeds, while Sbi-miR396d and Sbi-miR396e were highly expressed at both developmental stages. These results suggest that only Sbi-miR396d and Sbi-miR396e are extensively involved in the growth and development of organs and tissues, especially the panicle development in sorghum. Therefore, it is possible to change the panicle and grain development and increase the yield by regulating the expression level of Sbi-miR396d and Sbi-miR396e in sorghum.
GRFs are plant-specific transcription factors that play a key role in regulating various stages of plant growth and development. The N-terminus of GRF proteins commonly contains two conserved functional domains, QLQ and WRC [46]. In the present study, all nine GRFs targeted by Sbi-miR396 also exhibited the intact conserved domains WRC (Motif1) and QLQ (Motif2), with QLQ located in front of WRC in all cases. The conserved RSRK-VE region present at the end of the conserved domain WRC corresponds to a highly conserved nucleotide coding sequence and is nearly complementary to the mature Sbi-miR396 sequence. It has been reported that miR396 cuts the mRNA sequence of the GRF gene between the sequences “CGUUCAAGAA” and “AGCNUGUGGAA” at this conserved site, thereby negatively regulating GRF gene expression [47]. The motif and gene structure analyses of SbiGRFs suggested that the nine SbiGRFs have different numbers of motifs and introns, implying that they perform differential functions in the regulation of the growth and development of sorghum.
In sorghum, Sbi-miR396 influences the growth and development processes by targeting SbiGRFs and regulating their expression levels. Therefore, analysis of the expression patterns of the sorghum GRF genes facilitates the understanding of the function of the sorghum miR396–GRF module. In rice, most GRF genes are expressed in several tissues and participate in the regulation of multiple physiological processes during plant growth and development. However, expression analysis of SbiGRFs in different tissues and developmental stages revealed that they are mainly expressed in young inflorescences and early developing seeds, indicating remarkable tissue specificity. These results indicate that SbiGRFs mainly participate in the regulation of floral organ and seed growth and development in sorghum. The phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that SbiGRF8/6/9 were clustered with OsGRF6/7/8/9 in Group I, highlighting their close phylogenetic relationship. Research in rice has demonstrated that OsGRF6 plays a vital role in regulating plant height, stem elongation, and floral organ development [31, 35]; OsGRF7 mainly controls plant height, leaf length, and tiller number [13, 29]; OsGRF8 regulates grain size and yield [33]; and OsGRF9 is not involved in rice growth and development regulation but regulates rice blast resistance [48]. Regarding expression analysis of SbiGRFs in different tissues and developmental stages, the expression level of SbiGRF8 was higher than that of other SbiGRFs in the young spikes of the inflorescence developmental stage and early development seeds. Thus, SbiGRF8 may play a major role in regulating the development of floral organs and seeds in sorghum. SbiGRF9 exhibited the lowest expression level at both developmental stages, suggesting that this gene is not associated with the regulation of sorghum growth and development. It may be functionally consistent with the homologous gene OsGRF9 in rice and plays a role in disease resistance. SbiGRF5/3/4 were clustered with OsGRF3/4/5 in Group V. In rice, OsGRF3/4 regulate grain size [21, 32, 34], and OsGRF5 regulates plant height and inflorescence development [49]. In the present study, SbiGRF5 were found to be highly expressed in inflorescence developmental and early development seeds of sorghum. In particular, SbiGRF5 was preferentially expressed after inflorescences emergence, whereas SbiGRF3/4 showed relatively low expression levels in various tissues. These results suggest that in sorghum, SbiGRF5 was associated with the regulation of seed development and floral organ development. Furthermore, SbiGRF2 and SbiGRF10 also showed relatively low expression levels, whereas SbiGRF1 exhibited very high expression levels at both developmental stages. These results imply that SbiGRFs may be both redundant and functionally specialized in regulating the growth and development of sorghum flower organs and seeds. Therefore, increasing the expression level of SbiGRFs, especially SbiGRF8, SbiGRF1 and SbiGRF5, by means of genetic engineering may affect the panicle and grain development, and increase the yield in sorghum.
Conclusions
In this study, a total of five miR396 members were identified from sorghum genome. Notably, only Sbi-miR396d and Sbi-miR396e could regulate sorghum growth and development. Sbi-miR396d/e mainly target the growth-regulating factor genes SbiGRF1/2/3/4/5/6/8/9/10. However, only SbiGRF1/5/8 were highly expressed in floral organ and early developing seeds. Thus, the miR396d/e–GRF1/5/8 modules may be involved in regulation of sorghum floral organ and seed development, thus changing the sorghum spike structure and subsequently affecting its yield. Taken together, our study is the first comprehensive characterization of miR396–GRF in sorghum. All these findings provide the foundation to elucidate the molecular mechanism of miR396–GRF in sorghum floral organ and seed development.
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