https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7100-5915
Figures
Abstract
Background
The plants of the genus Clerodendrum L. have great potential for development as an ornamental and important herbal resource. There is no significant morphological difference among many species of the genus Clerodendrum, which will lead to confusion among the herbs of this genus and ultimately affect the quality of the herbs. The chloroplast genome will contribute to the development of new markers used for the identification and classification of species.
Methods and results
Here, we obtained the complete chloroplast genome sequences of Clerodendrum chinense (Osbeck) Mabberley and Clerodendrum thomsoniae Balf.f. using the next generation DNA sequencing technology. The chloroplast genomes of the two species all encode a total of 112 unique genes, including 80 protein-coding, 28 tRNA, and four rRNA genes. A total of 44–42 simple sequence repeats, 19–16 tandem repeats and 44–44 scattered repetitive sequences were identified. Phylogenetic analyses showed that the nine Clerodendrum species were classified into two clades and together formed a monophyletic group. Selective pressure analyses of 77 protein-coding genes showed that there was no gene under positive selection in the Clerodendrum branch. Analyses of sequence divergence found two intergenic regions: trnH-GUG-psbA, nhdD-psaC, exhibiting a high degree of variations. Meanwhile, there was no hypervariable region identified in protein coding genes. However, the sequence identities of these two intergenic spacers (IGSs) are greater than 99% among some species, which will result in the two IGSs not being used to distinguish Clerodendrum species. Analysis of the structure at the LSC (Large single copy) /IR (Inverted repeat) and SSC (Small single copy)/IR boundary regions showed dynamic changes. The above results showed that the complete chloroplast genomes can be used as a super-barcode to identify these Clerodendrum species. The study lay the foundation for the understanding of the evolutionary process of the genus Clerodendrum.
Citation: Chen H, Chen H, Wang B, Liu C (2023) Conserved chloroplast genome sequences of the genus Clerodendrum Linn. (Lamiaceae) as a super-barcode. PLoS ONE 18(2): e0277809. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0277809
Editor: Longbiao Guo, China National Rice Research Institute, CHINA
Received: April 13, 2022; Accepted: November 3, 2022; Published: February 9, 2023
Copyright: © 2023 Chen et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Data Availability: The genome sequence and annotations have been deposited in GenBank with accession numbers OM912811 and OM912812, respectively.
Funding: This work was supported by the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Innovation Funds for Medical Sciences (CIFMS) [2021-I2M-1-071] to Haimei Chen, National Science & Technology Fundamental Resources Investigation Program of China [2018FY100705] to Chang Liu, and National Science Foundation Funds [81872966] to Chang Liu. The funders were not involved in the study design, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or manuscript preparation.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Introduction
The plants of the genus Clerodendrum L. in the family Lamiaceae are about 400 species, mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with a few in temperate regions [1]. There are 34 species and 6 varieties are native to China, mostly in southwestern and southern China [2]. In China, most of the plants of the genus Clerodendrum are medicinal plants with the effects of clearing heat and detoxifying, dispelling wind and dampness, activating blood circulation and dispersing blood stasis, lowering blood pressure, anti-inflammatory and analgesic, which are commonly used to treat cold and high fever, rheumatic arthritis, bruises and injuries, hypertension, carbuncles and furuncles [3]. In Vietnam, Clerodendrum cyrtophyllum Turcz is used for the treatment of migraine, hypertension, pharyngitis, and rheumatic arthritis. Total phenols and flavonoids isolated from leaves of C. cyrtophyllum displayed potential antioxidant activity and anti-inflammatory activity [4]. In addition, many species of this genus have peculiar flower patterns, which are native to China, and have been domesticated and cultivated as ornamental plants including Clerodendrum canescens Wall., Clerodendrum chinense (Osbeck) Mabb, Clerodendrum wallichii Merr., Clerodendrum trichotomum Thunb., Clerodendrum bungei Steud., etc. Some Clerodendrum species include Clerodendrum thomsoniae Balf. f., Clerodendrum speciosum W. Bull, Clerodendrum quadriloculare (Blanco) Merr. and Clerodendrum splendens G. Don have been introduced from abroad as the ornamental plant. This shows that this genus has great potential for development as an important ornamental herbal medicine resource.
Clerodendrum chinense (Osbeck) Mabberley originating in Asia and commonly known as Chinese glory flower, is an evergreen shrub species in the Lamiaceae family [5]. It grows stout branches, usually up to about 2 meters tall. It produces fragrant, white-pink, rose-like, clusters of flowers followed by berries [5]. The roots and leaves of C. chinense are used as medicine to dispel wind and dampness, invigorate blood and strengthen muscles and bones [6]. The methanol extract of the leaves of C. chinense showed significant anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic effects [7]. The Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI) classified C. chinense as a highly invasive species in tropical and subtropical ecosystems due to its aggressive suckering habit. It is also listed as an invasive species in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the US Virgin Islands (https://candide.com/US/plants/). C. chinense is also classed as a major weed in Hawaii, Fiji, Western Samoa, and American Samoa and as a widespread exotic plant in the Lesser Antilles.
Clerodendrum thomsoniae Balf.f. native to West tropical Africa is a weak-stemmed, evergreen shrub with a more or less climbing habit. As a shrub, it usually reaches heights of over 1–2 metres. And when the twining habit is adopted, its stems can grow up to 7 metres [8]. The mashed leaves and flowers were used to treatment of bruises, cuts, skin rashes and sores. C. thomsoniae is widely cultivated as an ornamental and has been introduced in many places including America, the Galapagos Islands, and Australia.
Currently the utilization of traditional Chinese medicine resources generally has the problem of confusing products and pseudo, which will affect the quality of medicinal herbs. There is no significant morphological difference among many species of the genus Clerodendrum, that it is impossible to distinguish them in morphology. With the development of sequencing technology, complete chloroplast genome sequences have been used for the identification of medicinal plants, species classification and selection of superior germplasm. At present, although there are seven plastid chloroplast genomes of Clerodendrum species that have been released in Genbank [9–13], studies using complete plastid genomes for systematic analysis of the genus Clerodendrum are absent. In the present study, we reported the two complete plastome sequences of C. chinense and C. thomsoniae collected from Guangxi, China. The phylogenetic relationships of Clerodendrum species and its related genera were studied based on complete chloroplast genome sequence data. Systematically comparative analyses of the plastomes from C. chinense, C. thomsoniae and other Clerodendrum species were performed. The results will provide valuable information for future phylogenetic and taxonomic studies on the Clerodendrum species.
Materials and methods
Plant materials, DNA extraction, and sequencing
Young leaves of C. chinense and C. thomsoniae were freshly collected from the Guangxi Medical Botanical Garden, Nanning, China. Total DNA was extracted using the DNA extraction kit (Tiangen Biotech, Beijing, China) and stored at the Institute of Medicinal Plant Development (IMPLAD), Beijing, China with the ID number: Implad201910240 and Implad201910292, respectively. C. chinense and C. thomsoniae are not endangered or protected species. A total of 1μg DNA was used for DNA library construction, and the library with insert sizes of 500 bases was sequenced with Hiseq 2500 platform (Illumina, San Diego, CA, USA). A total of 16,943,658 and 17,455,640 paired-end reads were obtained with 150 bases long for C. chinense and C. thomsoniae.
Genome assembly, annotation and repeat sequence analysis
The chloroplast genome was assembled from the whole genome sequencing data using NOVOPlasty (v.2.7.2) [14] with the seed sequence of rbcL gene from Arabidopsis thaliana. The annotation of the chloroplast genome was originally performed using CPGAVAS2 [15] and then curated using Apollo [16]. The genome sequence and annotations have been deposited in GenBank with accession numbers OM912811 and OM912812, respectively.
Three types of repeat sequences were identified. Perl script MISA (http://pgrc.ipk-gatersleben.de/misa/) [17] was used to identify simple sequence repeats (SSRs) with the parameters listed as follows: 10 repeat units for mononucleotide SSRs, 6 and 5 repeat units for di- and tri-nucleotide repeat SSRs, and 5 repeat units for tetra-, penta-, and hexanucleotide repeat SSRs. Tandem Repeats Finder was used with parameters of 2 for matches and 7 for mismatches and indels [18]. For the minimum alignment score and the maximum period, the size was set to 50 and 500, respectively. Palindrome and forward repeats were identified by the REPuter web service [19]. The minimum repeat size and the similarity cut-off were set to 20 bp and 90%, respectively.
Phylogenetic analysis
To determine the phylogenetic position of Clerodendrum in the Lamiaceae, 46 species with released complete chloroplast genome were selected. Among the 46 species, 23 species were in the subfamily Ajugoideae, which contained four plant tribes including Ajugeae (7 species), Clerodendreae (9 species), Teucrieae (5 species) and Rotheceae (2 species). Mazus pumilus and Phryma leptostachya were set as outgroups. Firstly, the released complete chloroplast genomes were restarted with the trnH gene using SeqKit v0.12.1 [20]. Secondly, the multiple sequence alignments of the complete sequences of chloroplast genomes were performed derived from 46 species using MAFFT v6.861b [21] with default parameters. Then the conserved blocks of multiple sequence alignment were selected using Gblocks v0.91b [22] with default parameters. The dataset of conserved blocks was subjected to phylogenetic analysis using IQ-TREE v1.6.12 [23] with the TVM+F+R3 model and ultrafast bootstrap 1000 replicates. The tree file with nwk format was visualized by MEGA-X [24]. The taxon information of species used for phylogenetic analysis was listed in S1 Table.
Selective pressure analysis
As synonymous substitutions accumulate nearly neutrally, non-synonymous substitutions are subject to selective pressures of varying degrees and directions (positive or negative). In general, the ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous substitution (ω) measures the levels of selective pressure operating in a protein coding gene. In the evolutionary analysis above, we found that the chloroplast whole genome sequences of Clerodendrum lindleyi (NC_056199.1) and Clerodendrum bungei (NC_056141.1) differed by only 4 bases, so we excluded the sequence of C. bungei for the further analysis. To test which genes were subject to positive selection at the genus Clerodendrum branch, we conducted the selection analysis of protein-encoding genes derived from Ajugoideae branch. A total of 77 protein-encoding genes among 21 species belonging to the subfamily Ajugoideae were extracted and subjected to positive selection using our custom script. In brief, the selective pressure analysis was conducted using HyPhy v2.3.1120180415beta (MP) with the adaptive branch-site random effects likelihood (aBSREL) model [25] (http://www.hyphy.org/). Significance was assessed using the Likelihood Ratio Test at a threshold of p ≤ 0.05, after correcting for multiple testing. Finally, the sites that were subject to positive selection along Ajugoideae branch were viewed via this website http://vision.hyphy.org/.
Hypervariable region analysis
The pairwise distance was determined using the Distmat program that was implemented in EMBOSS (v6.3.1) [26] with the Kimura 2-parameters (K2p) evolution model [27] for intergenic regions of eight Clerodendrum species. To determine the threshold for the K2p distance to be a hypervariable region, we calculated the average and the standard deviation for all the K2p values. The average + 2*STD was then set as the threshold.
Boundary analysis of Clerodendrum plastomes
To obtain the gene distribution on large single copy region (LSC), small single copy region (SSC), inverted repeat a (IRa), and IRb borders, the location of genes on the boundaries was visualized using IRSCOPE [28]. The GenBank files of eight Clerodendrum chloroplast genome were used for the input file of IRSCOPE. The genomes were restarted with the trnH gene and re-annotated using CPGAVAS2 with custom reference.
Results
Chloroplast genome
Chloroplast DNA of C. chinense and C. thomsoniae as circular molecules, and the total length of its genome sequence is 152,101 bp and 151,053 bp. They all have a conserved tetrad structure consisting of a LSC region, a SSC region and a pair of IR regions. The length of LSC, SSC and IR regions of C. chinense were 83,375 bp, 17,390 bp and 25,668bp respectively (Fig 1). And the length of LSC, SSC and IR regions of C. thomsoniae were 82,742 bp, 17,225 bp and 25,543 bp respectively (S1 Fig). The overall G/C content of the chloroplast genome of C. chinense and C. thomsoniae was 38.15% and 38.21%. The G/C content of the IR region of C. chinense is 43.29% which is higher than that of the SSC region (31.93%) and the LSC region (36.28%). The G/C content of the IR region of C. thomsoniae is 43.33% which is also higher than that of the SSC region (32.08%) and the LSC region (36.32%).
There are six rings on the diagram from the center outwards. The first ring is used to indicate the position of forward (red arcs) and reverse (green arcs) repeats. The second ring is used to indicate tandem repeats (short columns). The third ring is used to indicate microsatellite repeats (short columns). The fourth shaded ring indicates each part and the length of SSC, IRa, IRb, and LSC regions. The optional shaded area stretching from the inner sphere toward the outer circle marks the IR regions The fifth ring indicates the GC content of the chloroplast genome. The outer ring shows the gene names and their optional codon usage bias. The genes are colored based on their functional categories.
Coding genes
The chloroplast genomes of C. chinense and C. thomsoniae all encode a total of 131 genes, including 112 unique genes, including 83 protein-coding genes (80 unique genes), 35 genes encoding transfer RNA (28 unique tRNA genes) and 8 genes encoding ribosomal RNA (4 unique rRNA genes) (S2 Table). Eight of the protein-coding genes (ndhB, rpl2, rpl23, rps12, ycf2, rps7, ycf15, ycf1), seven tRNA-coding genes (trnA-UGC, trnE-UUC, trnL-CAA, trnM-CAU, trnN-GUU, trnR-ACG, trnV-GAC), and four rRNA-coding genes (rrn4.5, rrn5, rrn16 and rrn23) were in the IR region. Nine protein-coding genes (rps16, atpF, rpoC1, rpl16, petB, petD, rpl2, ndhB, ndhA) contain one intron, and two protein-coding genes (ycf3, clpP) containing 2 introns, and 6 tRNA-encoding genes (trnK-UUU, trnS-CGA, trnL-UAA, trnV-UAC, trnE-UUC, trnA-UGC) containing 1 intron (S3 and S4 Tables). The length of the coding sequence (CDS) in the chloroplast genome of C. chinense was 80,663 bp, accounting for 53.03% of the total genome length. rRNA genes were 9,050 bp, accounting for 5.95% of the total genome length, while the length of tRNA genes was 2,642 bp, accounting for 1.74% of the total genome length. The non-coding regions of the chloroplast genome of C. chinense mainly consisted of introns and spacer regions, which accounted for 39.28% of the entire genome length. The length of CDS in the chloroplast genome of C. thomsoniae was 80,117 bp, accounting for 53.04% of the total genome length. rRNA genes were 9,050 bp in length, accounting for 5.99% of the total genome, while the length of tRNA genes was 2,642 bp, accounting for 1.75% of the total genome length. The non-coding regions of the chloroplast genome of C. thomsoniae mainly consisted of introns and spacer regions, which accounted for 39.22% of the entire genome length.
Repeat sequence
In this study, three types of repeat sequence were identified namely microsatellite sequence repeat, tandem repeat and dispersed repeat, which can be used as a molecular marker to distinguish species.
In the C. chinense chloroplast genome, the type of microsatellite repeats was dominated by A/T with 36 times, followed by AT/AT with 3 times, C/G with 4 times, and AAT/ATT with 1 time (S5 Table). In the C. thomsoniae chloroplast genome, the type of microsatellite repeat sequence was dominated by A/T with 40 times, followed by AT/AT times, and AAT/ATT with 1 time (S6 Table). In addition, the distributions of the identified SSRs were also investigated. In the present study, SSRs were less abundant in the CDS than in the intergenic spacer (IGS) of the chloroplast genome of C. chinense and C. thomsoniae (S7 and S8 Tables).
A tandem repeat sequence is a sequence consisting of multiple consecutive arrangements of repeat units on a chromosome. 13 tandem repeats were found in the C. chinense chloroplast genome (S9 Table) and 8 tandem repeats were found in the C. thomsoniae (S10 Table) chloroplast genome, meeting two criteria of total length over 20bp and ≥90% similarity between repeat units.
Dispersed repeats are a different type of repetitive sequence from tandem repeats in that the repeat units are distributed throughout the genome. There are four types of dispersed repeats, which are forward, reverse, complement and palindromic repeats. The C. chinense chloroplast genome has 18 palindromic repeats and 14 forward repeats with a threshold E-value of less than 1E-4 (S11 Table). The C. thomsoniae chloroplast genome has 16 palindromic repeats and 11 forward repeats (S12 Table).
These repeats identified in this study will provide valuable resources for species identification and population studies of Clerodendrum spp.
Phylogenetic tree
To identify the phylogenetic positions of the nine Clerodendrum spp. within the Liliaceae, we obtained 44 complete chloroplast genome sequences belonging to 7 subfamilies of the family Lamiaceae including Ajugoideae, Lamiodeae, Scutellarioideae, Premnoideae, Viticoideae, Callicarpoideae from the NCBI database (S1 Table). In addition, 23 species belonging to four tribes of Ajugoideae were selected, namely Ajugeae, Clerodendreae, Teucrieae, Rotheceae. Mazus pumilus and Phryma leptostachya were set as outgroup. Multiple sequence alignment of the complete genome was carried out by MAFFT. The best-fit model TVM+F+R3 was obtained by IQ-tree screening, and the phylogenetic tree was constructed by the maximum Likelihood method. All the species from Clerodendrum were clustered together and formed a monophyletic group. C. chinense and C. cyrtophyllum were clustered together to be the sister of C. bungei, C. lindleyi, C. yunnanense and C. mandarinorum. C. thomsoniae was at the basal clade of Clerodendrum (Fig 2). The distribution range of C. chinense, C. cyrtophyllum, C. bungei, C. lindleyi, C. yunnanense, C. mandarinorum, C. trichotomum and C. japonicum was east of Asia. While the distribution range of C. thomsoniae was west tropical Africa. Our results showed that the Asian clade and African clade are sister groups and together form a monophyletic group. These results will provide an important reference and foundation for species identification and phylogeny of Clerodendrum plants.
The phylogenetic results included 44 species within family and two out-group species. Mazus pumilus and Phryma leptostachya were set as the outgroups. The species marked with an asterisk are C. Chinense and C. thomsoniae, whose chloroplast genomes were firstly reported. The right of the panel is the name of tribe and subfamily according to the species. Numbers above the branches are the bootstrap support values.
Selective pressure analysis
Selective pressure analyses of 77 protein-coding genes in the subfamily Ajugoideae plastomes showed that six genes (clpP, ndhA, ndhF, rpoC2, rpl22 and ycf1) were found to have evolved under positive selection in Ajugoideae branch. And the significance and number of rate categories inferred at the Ajugoideae branch are provided in Table 1. The longest optimized branch length of the Ajugoideae branch is 0.0113 for the ycf1 gene. And there was no gene under positive selection in the Clerodendrum branch.
Hypervariable regions
The pairwise comparison of protein coding genes (PCGs) and intergenic spacer regions among the eight Clerodendrum species was conducted to identify hypervariable regions using the Kimura 2-parameter (K2p) model. The high variable region threshold of K2p for PCG and IGS are 2.13 and 6.39, respectively. The K2p distance ranged from 0.00 to 6.49 among 77 PCGs of the eight Clerodendrum species. Among them, the rpl32, ycf1 showed the average distances of 2.09 and 2.02 among the eight Clerodendrum species, which were all lower than the K2p value threshold for PCG (Fig 3A). The K2p distance ranged from 0.00 to 33.21 among 117 IGSs of the eight Clerodendrum species. Among them, the IGS regions trnH-GUG-psbA, nhdD-psaC showed average distances of 11.97 and 7.22 among the eight Clerodendrum species, respectively (Fig 3B). However, trnH-GUG-psbA region could not be used to distinguish the C. yunnanense and C. lindleyi with 99% sequence identities. The sequence similarity of the nhdD-psaC region among the three species C. trichotomum, C. mandarinorum and C. Chinense is 100%, which making it impossible to distinguish between these species. In conclusion, there was no single region can be used as molecular markers for evaluating plant phylogeny at low taxonomic levels and for DNA barcoding in Clerodendrum.
Comparison of the variability of PCG and IGS regions among C. chinense, C. cyrtophyllum, C. lindleyi, C. yunnanense, C. mandarinorum, C. trichotomum, C. thomsoniae and C. japonicum. The X-axis indicates the name of PCG and IGS regions. The top thirty PCG or ICG of K2p distances were showed in panel A and panel B. And the Y-axis shows the range of K2p distances between different pairs of species. The diamond shows the average K2p distance, respectively.
Dynamic changes in the IR region of Clerodendrum plastome
The expansion/contraction of the IR regions [29] is one reason for variation in the size of plastomes. Based on the distances between the border of rps19 and the IR/LSC junction, the eight Clerodendrum species were classified into three groups (Fig 4). The rps19 gene of the first group was 238bp and 41bp in the LSC and IR regions, respectively, which included C. mandarinorum and C. thomsoniae. The second group included C. japonicum, C. trichotomum, C. Chinense, C. cyrtophyllum, in which the rps19 gene was 254bp and 25bp in the LSC and IR regions, respectively. The third group included C. yunnanense and C. lindleyl, in which the rps19 gene was 237 bp and 42 bp in the LSC and IR regions, respectively. Another interesting observation is that the ycf1 gene is localized in the IRb/SSC junction. The ycf1 gene sequence is 1092 bp for C. thomsoniae, 1103 bp for C. japonicum, 1061 bp for C. trichotomum, 1084 bp for C. cyrtophyllum and 1086 bp for C. Chinense, C. mandarinorum, C. yunnanense and C. lindleyl. The above result showed that the expansion or contraction of IR boundaries in Clerodendrum species were dynamic events.
The name of each species and its corresponding length of chloroplast genome sequence are described on the left side of each track. Genes shown above the lines are transcribed forward while genes shown below the lines are transcribed reversely. Light blue, orange, and green box represent LSC, IR and SSC region, respectively. The numbers on the box indicate the length of each region. The number near the arrow shows the distance between the start or end coordinates of a given gene and the corresponding junction site. JLB (IRb/LSC), JSB (IRb/SSC), JSA (SSC/IRA) and JLA (IRa/LSC) represent the junction between corresponding regions in the genome respectively.
Discussion
Here, we studied two Clerodendrum species, C. chinense and C. thomsoniae. We carried out a detailed analysis of the genome features, and performed the phylogenetic analysis with whole chloroplast genome sequences. Phylogenetic analyses showed that nine Clerodendrum species were on a monophyletic clade, with 100% bootstrap values. Analyses of selective pressure revealed that there was no gene undergoing positive selection in Clerodendrum branch. Analyses of sequence divergence found two sites: IGS (trnH-GUG-psbA) and IGS (nhdD-psaC) had a high degree of variations. Analysis of the plastomic structure at the LSC/IR and SSC/IR boundary regions showed dynamic events.
With the development of molecular systematic methods, the delimitation of Clerodendrum continues to be modified. Four large discrete clades (Clades I-IV) within Clerodenidrum s.l. were identified using chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) restriction site data [30] and showed that Clerodendrum s.l.is polyphyletic. Among them, clades I and II comprise Asian and African taxa respectively. Clade III comprises coastal. Clade IV, comprising subg. Cyclonema and sect. Konocalyx (subg. Clerodendrum pro parte) emerges as a lineage distinct from the rest of Clerodendrum. Cyclonema and Konocalyx form a clade distinct from Clerodendrum s.s., which has been identified as Rotheca Raf using the internal transcribed spacers (ITS) of the nuclear ribosomal DNA [31]. To clarify the positions of these four genera relative to Clerodendrum, ITS and chloroplast ndhF sequence data were used. The phylogenetic results showed that the Australian monotypic genus Huxleya evolved from within Clerodendrum and was sunk into Clerodendrum with a new combination, Clerodendrum linifolium [1]. Yuan et al. [32] proposed to separate the Pantropical Coastal clade and C. spinosum by reviving the genera Volkameria (including Huxleya) and Ovieda, and restricting Clerodendrum to the Asian and African clades based on the phylogenetic study of four relatively fast-evolving chloroplast DNA regions, trnT-L, trnL-F, trnD-T, and trnS-fM. In this paper, we examine the taxonomic positions of seven more labiate genera related to Clerodendrum: Ajuga, Amethystea, Caryopteris, Teucrium, Pseudocaryopteris, Rotheca, and Schnabelia. We also examine the positions of these taxa in the broader context of subfamily Ajugoideae. The results corroborate previous studies that the Asian clade and African clade are sister groups and together form a monophyletic group.
Gogoi et al. [33] evaluated four barcode candidates (ITS2, matK, rbcL, ycf1) and their combinations in different Clerodendrum species of Northeast India. The reliability of these barcodes to distinguish the species was evaluated by genetic pairwise distances, intra- and inter-specific diversity, barcode gap, and phylogenetic tree-based methods. The results showed that the combination of ITS2 + matK was suggested to be the core barcode for Clerodendrum. Three chloroplast sequences, psbA-trnH, rbcL, matK, two nuclear ribosomal DNA ITS2 and ITS have been used to be as DNA barcodes for identifying medicinal plant species in Verbenaceae [34], which proposes that the combination of ITS2 and psbA-trnH sequence is promising for the identification of the species in Verbenaceae. In this study, we found that the K2p values were particularly high for the two IGS regions: trnH-GUG-psbA, nhdD-psaC. Meanwhile, there were no hypervariable regions identified for the PCG. However, the sequence identities of trnH-GUG-psbA and nhdD-psaC are greater than 99% among some species, which will result in the two IGSs not being used to distinguish Clerodendrum species.
Conclusions
The complete plastomes of C. thomsonia and C. Chinense are reported for the first time in this study. The study showed that the complete chloroplast genomes can be used as a super-barcode to identify these Clerodendrum species. The results obtained from these studies will contribute to our understanding of Clerodendrum classification, plastome evolution, and the discrimination of medicinal products derived from Clerodendrum species.
Supporting information
S1 Table. The taxonomy of related species for phylogenetic analysis.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0277809.s001
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S2 Table. List of genes in the chloroplast genome of C. chinense and C. thomsoniae.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0277809.s002
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S3 Table. Intron and exon positions and lengths of chloroplast genes in C. chinense.
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S4 Table. Intron and exon positions and lengths of chloroplast genes in C. thomsoniae.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0277809.s004
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S5 Table. Statistics on the number of microsatellites repeat sequences in the chloroplast genome of C. chinense.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0277809.s005
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S6 Table. Distribution of nucleotide SSR sequences in the chloroplast genome of C. chinense.
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S7 Table. Statistics on the number of microsatellite repeat sequences in the chloroplast genome of C. thomsoniae.
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S8 Table. Distribution of nucleotide SSR sequences in the chloroplast genome of C. thomsoniae.
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S9 Table. Tandem repeat sequence statistics of the chloroplast genome of C. chinense.
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S10 Table. Tandem repeat sequence statistics of the chloroplast genome of C. thomsoniae.
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S11 Table. Characteristic values of scattered repetitive sequences in the chloroplast genome of C. chinense.
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S12 Table. Characteristic values of scattered repetitive sequences in the chloroplast genome of C. thomsoniae.
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S1 Fig. Map of the chloroplast genome of C. thomsoniae using CPGview-RSG.
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