Student-athlete content unit.

In particular, five statements pertained to aspects related to the S-A were found (e.g., eligibility and support for DC paths, and professional expectations). The philosophy shown by the athletes in this section as well as some examples can be found in the Table 2. Specifically, by delving deeper into the content unit on the student-athlete, the participants of the focus groups envisaged the recognition of S-As status for both elite athletes and athletes committed to an organized sport within their respective sport federations, and engaged in demanding training and competitions independently from the competition level. In fact, both elite and sub-elite athletes engage in sports with demanding training and competition schedules, which challenge them to combine their DC paths, especially in the absence of academic and/or sport DC support, lack of flexible academic and sport schedules, and in the presence of long distances between the university and the sport venues [25, 26].

At present, the lack of a clear and universal definition of talented and elite athletes, as well as country-specific cultural and organizational regulations in the field of sports and education, determine important differences in the eligibility criteria and requirements for DC programmes of S-As [6, 8, 42], with the athletes who participated in the present investigation showing their concern about this. More specifically, it is common that eligibility for academic admission procedures and DC paths and services include a limited number of elite athletes who are members of national Olympic and Paralympic teams, and/or placed in the top positions of the World and European senior or junior championships in Olympic sports [8]. However, the construction of a sport career requires several years of deliberate practice, and top-level performances in some sports could be achieved in adult age [43, 44]. Due to all of the above, it would be desirable for different countries to adopt policies similar to the one recently adopted in Portugal, which defend the rights of S-As to achieve success in their DC from an early age, thus recognizing that the regular practice of sports activity in an academic context is an important complement to the holistic training of an individual as well as to the promotion of the development of healthy habits throughout life [45]. This is an important scope to address in the future.

In addition to their motivation, capability to juggle two commitments, to manage busy daily schedules, and to stay focused on both sport and education achievements, the S-As highlighted a crucial role of their support entourage. Independently from the provision of DC in their respective countries, relevant supportive roles from personal, sport and academic entourage were emphasized. These findings substantiate the literature on the DC challenges in different contexts and the importance to access a coherent career support network [22–24, 46, 47]. Indeed, the academic years often coincide with increased competitive demands and new personal adjustments due to academic responsibilities and changes in residence and distance from family and friends, and detachment from the student cohort, particularly during the first year at the university [48, 49]. For this, a collective effort is important, and regular communication across the athlete’s sport and education entourage were envisaged, also including more experienced S-As as role models [41, 49].

As for the professional expectations, despite the participants in this study declaring high professional expectations for their sports career, they were aware that their competitive years would naturally come to an end. Thus, they deemed higher education important to improve their chances of future employment, as they were also aware that the labour market favoured employees possessing a university degree [50]. According to the literature, independently from their short-term athletic goals, the S-As enrolled in a variety of university majors, based on their individual attitudes, motivation towards sports and academics, career planning, and the constrains of the degree programme which determined the study regime, forms and periods of examination [46, 51–56]. More specifically, in enrolling in educational paths, elite athletes could have a status of S-As, but the benefits offered by educational institutions are very different in regard to type and degree, generally related to reductions of compulsory attendance and other study obligations, the possibility of prolonging the length of the study programme, the opportunity of passing exams outside the regular deadlines, financial and logistic supports [57]. In fact, the adjustment of academic obligations of the S-As depends on the individual HEI within its national DC approach. More specifically to the HEIs included in this study, the Spanish (Catholic University of Murcia, UCAM) and Portuguese (University of Coimbra) have well-established DC programmes, encompassing a specialized tutoring system and DC services [37, 45], the University of Latvia is a sports-friendly higher education institution [58], whereas the University "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" of Iași, Romania, and the University “G. D’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, Italy, did not consider the needs of the S-As as a talented atypical population [59, 60]. In fact, only some Italian HEIs have implemented their policies and services to support DC and/or have established agreements with national sports federations, so that DC interventions are restricted to a particular academic-sports environment and involve a limited number of elite athletes, whereas the DC in Romania is at its infancy level [59, 60]. Moving towards DC programmes that allow the athlete to be successful and to be able to combine their studies and sport is an important challenge for the future, regardless of the institution where they study.

Assistance/tutorship content unit.

Five statements pertained to aspects related to the assistance/tutorship were found (e.g., DC programmes, tutoring, and psychosocial support) (Table 2). Despite the existing differences between the available DC supports, in this study the participants envisaged specific and flexible DC programmes, conceivably capable of anticipating the needs of S-As. To overcome the existing fragmentation of DC support structures and to at least partially resolve the lack of dedicated DC programmes or services, intra- and inter-departmental cooperation was foreseen. Considering that HEIs usually provide various services to enhance the non-athlete student’s experience and to secure graduate employment (e.g., academic orientation, consultation, career and personal counselling, nutrition, medical, and psychological support), the participants in this study suggested that HEIs deem appropriate the training of student service personnel with topics relevant to athletes, such as DC transitions and development, training for academic success, skills transfer, emotional distress, coping, time management, relaxation, and positive working relationships with coaches, athletic administrators, and academic staff. In fact, the success of these services may depend on the DC awareness at the level of their staff [6].

Following the publication of the EU Guidelines on DCs of Athletes, HEIs were urged to adopt new pedagogical models and processes, and to provide a tutoring system for their student athletes. In fact, European universities were challenged to invest on new ways of reorganizing knowledge, rules and learning models to offer sound education to their students [39, 61]. Consequently, several European projects focused on the development of a dedicated guidance and tailor-made arrangements to sustain S-As [9]. In the search for solutions to the challenges of educating athletes, a flexible educational model was developed, taking into account the differences between HEIs in curriculum structures, whereas several ERASMUS+ Sport Collaborative Partnerships focused on the competences of support providers, tutors or mentors [62, 63]. These interdisciplinary approaches contributed to the European DC discourse based on eminence, and evidenced research findings on DC support services and competences, which should foster the implementation of DC policies and provisions at the European HEI level [20, 22]. However, legal constraints and university administrative rules may not favour the introduction of DC programmes in some member states. In this regard, tutorship becomes crucial to help with the development of virtuous interactions between the different DC actors for the psychosocial development of the S-As [7, 19, 36]. For mediating with academic staff and teachers to find creative solution to their needs, the participants deemed relevant the establishment of an informal relationship with a tutor, also taking advantage of social means of communication. In fact, through personal negotiations, teachers could be available to provide additional work in case of missed class attendance, considering on-line reception and support, and e-learning services, as appropriate tools for athletes [19, 64].

Curricula requirements content unit.

Another topic mentioned by the athletes was curricula requirements. In particular, four statements pertained to aspects related to curricula requirements were found (e.g., individualized DC paths and learning strategies) (Table 2). According to the European DC recommendations [2], the present findings corroborate the S-As’ need for flexible curricula, individualized study plans and distance learning, especially when they face conflicting schedules due to sport commitments. When available, S-As can take advantage of these elements during their academic path on a voluntary basis, and could also select only a few of these opportunities. Conversely, in countries with no DC policies in place or tied to traditional didactics, severe legal constraints and university administrative rules uphold face-to-face education, exacerbating the difficulties of S-As. However, during the recent COVID-19 pandemic lockdown, the European HEIs were confronted with a prompt and agile response to continue their academic activities, the adoption of remote methods [25, 65]. At present, distance learning is no longer a new concept, and HEIs developed sustainable e-learning systems including recorded lectures, which could be maintained to allow distance learning and academic flexibility, to guarantee future opportunities for an adequate support of S-As and other atypical students [66].

In Europe, a clear academic European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) procedures between HEIs in different EU Member States are deemed essential to the European Higher Education Area, and the development of new skills through a range of different experiences outside formal education is recognised to facilitate an employer or education institution with knowledge of the actual qualification of an individual [13]. Indeed, sports participation can advance competence-based approaches to educational outcomes in addition to the formal academic paths [8, 61]. During the focus groups, the participants envisaged the recognition of their competences and qualifications acquired through non-formal and informal sports education as a part of or in addition to their formal education. In fact, athletes learn valuable life lessons from their participation in sports, and former-athletes reported transfer of skills and attitudes from sports to their post-sports career, including energy, commitment, teamwork, respect, modesty, goal orientation and adjustment, mentoring receptiveness, self-efficacy, time management, responsibility, and autonomy [61, 67, 68]. Moreover, these skills can have positive effects on career success and labour market trajectories of former athletes, with higher salaries with respect to their non-athlete counterparts [69]. This is an important issue that needs to be addressed in the future by the different agencies involved.

Financial support content unit.

Four statements pertained to aspects related to financial support were found (e.g., fees and salaries) (Table 2). One of the main novelties of this research was the inclusion of financial support as a main topic based on the opinions of S-As. According to the European education area, HEIs strongly contribute to knowledge production for the development of highly skilled human capital and the promotion of upward socio-economic growth, equal opportunities, health and life satisfaction. At present, European Member States have adopted different policies to cover the financial aspects of tertiary education, ranging from full state support when considering HEI as a public good, to high student tuition fees when HEI are viewed as a private investment of the student, thus adopting low-tuition–low-subsidy, low-tuition–high-subsidy, or high-tuition–high-subsidy regimes [70]. In this study, the sample included either athletes enrolled in low-tuition–low-subsidy or high-tuition–high-subsidy HEIs. In reporting that a limited number of S-As received financial support that payed for all or part of their expenses, the participants highlighted the need for remission of tuition fees, scholarships, and subsistence, to provide them with a position of financial security, especially if engaged in non-revenue sports. In fact, a demanding financial burden of DC was reported when HEIs did not provide subsidies to sustain enrolment and living costs of athletes, especially in the absence of financial support from sport clubs or federations to cover the costs for equipment, training camp, and travel, which are necessary for preparing to compete at the highest levels [23, 71, 72].

The financial pressures could be responsible for DC dropouts [73]. Whilst the student’s enrolment in a university path could be affected by the cost of higher education (e.g., tuition fees, books, housing and food, etc.), DC opportunities should also be considered when HEI’s brand matter [74]. In this respect, HEIs could consider DC as the basis of their brand-related vision and values grounded in sports and active lifestyles. Thus, implementing strategic processes that align internal and external dimensions could help HEIs achieve collaborative practices to co-create sport-related values with the S-As [75–77].

Logistics content unit.

Logistics was also highlighted as a relevant topic. Specifically, four statements pertained to aspects related to financial support were found (e.g., academic and sport) (Table 2). According to the literature, the participants in this study declared that they wasted time when travelling from their home to the university and the sport venues [45]. To optimize their very busy daily schedules, the athletes envisaged the implementation of a transport system, as well as HEI housing, educational, and the sport facilities. At present, the European Study on Minimum Quality Requirements for DC Services claimed that the educational (e.g., classes, laboratories, study rooms equipped with information and communication technologies, e-libraries), accommodation (e.g., sleeping facilities, cafeterias) and high performance training centres (e.g., strength & conditioning gyms, recovery and therapy rooms, training venues) should be located within a maximum of 15 minutes travel time [6].

The participants in the focus groups also envisaged economic investments for university facilities. In some countries, the logistic aspect for athletes is considered very relevant, and a rapid build-up of HEI facilities has been reported, with the objective of attracting new students-athletes to campus [78]. However, no country prizes university sports as the United States. European S-As who do not have DC opportunities in their home countries tend to enroll in American HEIs, which offer sport scholarships, on-campus living and sports facilities, academic flexibility, distance learning, support resources, counselling, and well-structured DC paths [79–81]. To limit trans-continental migration of S-As, and to enhance the European DC, Member States should consider the implementation of HEI facilities for S-As and transnational dual-career cooperation to increase the mobility of S-As within Europe.

Social support content unit.

Six statements pertained to aspects related to the social support were found (e.g., supportive entourage and public recognition) (Table 2). According to the literature, the present findings substantiate the athlete’s feeling of a limited social life aside from training and study [46]. To have meaningful lifetime experiences as university students, relationships with academic faculty and non-athlete peers could be enhanced by HEI services facilitating mentorship from professors and friendships with non-athlete classmates [19, 82, 83]. Thus, institutional DC committees for the dialogue between DC actors (e.g., teachers and academic staff, coaches, parents, students) could be established, and information on DC issues could be disseminated by means of seminars, workshops, and meetings [84]. When considering the relevant role of non-athlete classmates in helping S-As connect with the academic life and forming friendships outside of their athletic circle, HEIs could foster peer-to-peer tutoring. Especially for the first-year S-As in need to adapt to a new environment, peer mentoring is a relevant aspect of effective undergraduate education, and it could help increase the sharing of information from classmates and/or other S-As with an advanced DC path, who are academically and socially connected, thereby providing opportunities for social interactions, academic engagement and connectivity, and for avoiding academic dropout [85]. On the other hand, due to their role as consistent and immediate references for the S-As, peer mentors could experience leadership opportunities, which could be promoted through ECTS recognition and economic support.

To increase the S-As’ sense of belonging and to avoid their isolation and distancing from their non-athlete peers, HEIs could publicize their team or individual sports accomplishments. Despite European university sports usually not bringing in revenues, S-As can be valuable resources for their HEIs as role models, by providing inspiration and publicity for the current and prospective student body, fund-raising activities, promotion of events, representing their university in public events, or attracting larger pools of qualified student bodies. In fact, the athletes’ actions inside and outside sports do not go unnoticed, and could provide benefits to their campuses, society, and the sports sector, also through their social media network [86]. Within the HEIs’ autonomy, some universities encompass financial compensation to their S-As [87]. Unfortunately, most of the European HEIs do not value their S-As, having no awareness of their number and/or offering no forms of recognition or usage of their image [6]. Finally, HEIs should consider providing proper publicity on the S-As’ characteristics as valuable human resources, for connecting with trends in the labour markets and to also establish virtuous cooperation with the private sector.

Policies content unit.

Three statements pertained to aspects related to the policies were found (e.g., national and local recommendations and monitoring systems) (Table 2). The findings of the present study also highlighted the need for clear DC policies at the national level, which are needed for establishing a coherent framework for the combination of sports and education. Despite the European Commission urging Member States to develop national DC guidelines, at present only Sweden has published a policy document resulting from the cooperation between DC stakeholders, including researchers and the research users [2, 88]. Whilst national laws and regulations are available in Spain and Portugal, in Italy the recently-established Italian network of universities interested in sports (e.g., UNISPORT Italia) started to provide information on which universities offer DC programmes for athletes, and fostered the cooperation between the Italian Conference of Rectors with the National Olympic and Paralympic Committees. Indeed, these actions substantiate the European efforts to support tertiary education of S-As.

At present, no monitoring system to assess DC responsibilities, programmes and provisions at local, national and European levels has been adopted, which limits the possibility for objectively evaluating the DC phenomenon and to take action in support of S-As, when necessary [6]. Considering that governments have established observatories for gathering a comprehensive overview of HEIs’ programmes, services, trends, and students’ progresses, it is possible to envisage their implementation with respect to the student-athlete subgroup. Thus, these observatories could start collecting information regarding the sports participation (e.g., type of sport, competitive level, sports commitment) of university students, which could allow large-scale monitoring. At individual HEIs, academic monitoring could also encompass direct consultation of the S-As or their DC tutors with faculty members to obtain their perspectives on strengths and weaknesses, so that actions for improving academic performances can be also planned according to the constraints of the competitive season.