https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0049-6750
Retraction
The PLOS ONE Editors retract this article [1] because it was identified as one of a series of submissions for which we have data concerns and concerns about authorship, competing interests, and peer review. We regret that the issues were not addressed prior to the article’s publication.
In addition, the following concerns were raised:
- The following images appear similar:
- The individual level data underlying the study have not been made available in accordance with the PLOS Data Availability Policy.
The authors explain that the studies were conducted simultaneously and that the panels are the same as they represent the same controls. They provided some individual level data to support the article, but some of the individual level data for Table 1 and 2 are no longer available. In our editorial assessment of the data provided for Table 1, we identified standard error value discrepancies between the dataset and the published table. The corresponding author’s explanations did not resolve these concerns.
Figs 1 and 4 report material from [2], published in 2019 by Taylor & Francis, which are not offered under a CC BY license and are therefore excluded from this article’s [1] license. At the time of retraction, the article [1] was republished to note this exclusion in the Figs 1 and 4 legends and the article’s copyright statement.
All authors disagreed with the retraction decision.
14 Dec 2023: The PLOS ONE Editors (2023) Retraction: Physio-anatomical modifications and elemental allocation pattern in Acanthus ilicifolius L. subjected to zinc stress. PLOS ONE 18(12): e0296156. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296156 View retraction
Figures
Abstract
Physio-anatomical modifications and elemental distribution pattern in Acanthus ilicifolius subjected to Zn stress were analysed in this study. Survival of A. ilicifolius plants under a high concentration of ZnSO4 was compensated by the reduction in the photosynthetic efficacy. Micro and macro-elemental distribution pattern in the root tissues was significantly influenced by heavy metal exposure. Tolerance towards the excess toxic metal ions in the tissue of A. ilicifolius was aided by the modified anatomical features. Moreover, the increased deposition of Zn around the central vasculature of the root confirms the complexation of Zn2+ in the xylem vessels. Metal induced molecular level changes of root and leaf samples indicate the presence of OH, NH2, and CH3 deformation as well as C-O-H and C-O-C stretch. A prominent band corresponding to CH3 deformation, pointing hemicellulose fortification, occurs in the cell walls of the xylem, aiding in Zn localization. The phytostabilisation potential of A. ilicifolius is dependent on the coordinated responses which endow with phenotypic plasticity necessary to cope with Zn toxicity.
Citation: Sarath NG, Manzil SA, Ali S, Alsahli AA, Puthur JT (2022) Physio-anatomical modifications and elemental allocation pattern in Acanthus ilicifolius L. subjected to zinc stress. PLoS ONE 17(5): e0263753. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263753
Editor: Rajagopal Subramanyam, University of Hyderabad School of Life Sciences, INDIA
Received: October 24, 2021; Accepted: January 25, 2022; Published: May 17, 2022
Copyright: © 2022 Sarath et al. With the exception of the Fig 1 Control and Fig 4 SEM panels, this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.
Funding: This study was supported by the Kerala State Council for Science, Technology, and Environment in the form of a KSCSTE Research Grant to NGS and JTP [KSCSTE/5179/2017-SRSLS], the Department of Science & Technology (DST), Government of India in the form of the Fund for Improvement of S&T Infrastructure (FIST) programme [SR/FST/LSI-532/2012], and by the King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Researchers Supporting Project Number [RSP-2021/236].
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Introduction
Soil contamination with toxic heavy metals is a growing concern as it causes severe intimidation to the environment due to its persistent nature and increased bioaccumulation potential [1]. The risk of these metals has abundantly increased in the recent past mainly because of industrialization and human interferences [1]. The overexploitation of natural soil, discharge of urban wastes, wide use of metal enriched agricultural pesticides and fertilizers augment the level of toxic metals [2]. Mining of non-ferrous metals, as well as smelting, have also augmented the heavy metal pollution of soil and water. The degradation of the entire ecosystem with potent toxic metals pose a great challenge to all livelihoods including human beings and also results in the deprivation of natural flora and fauna [3]. In addition to this, heavy metals are able to penetrate deep into the soil and cause contamination of groundwater, thereby getting entry to the food chain [4].
Among different toxic metal ions, zinc (Zn) is an essential micronutrient present in the soil, which stimulates plant growth and is also essential for the catalytic activity of different proteins. Uncontrolled activities of anthropogenic means have led to the increased deposition of Zn in the soil and thereby caused severe soil pollution and highly threatened the ecosystem. A higher concentration of Zn induces severe defects in plant growth due to various metabolic irregularities, including oxidative stress. Plants growing in the Zn contaminated soil showed disturbed physiological activities leading to the alteration of biomass production and productivity [5]. Moreover, Zn phytotoxicity alters the ion homeostasis and also leads to ROS accumulation resulting in oxidative stress [6].
The increased accumulation of heavy metals in the soil and its management in an eco-friendly manner is a difficult task [7]. The remediation of the contaminants from soil, using higher plants is termed as phytoremediation [4, 8, 9]. This creative solution is a hopeful tool for the decontamination of polluted soil. The planting of metal hyperaccumulating plants in polluted soils potentially reduces the contaminants and thereby would help to reclaim the soil for other purposes [10]. The prime success of phytoremediation is based on the selection of suitable tolerant plant species with increased heavy metal accumulation potential. The tolerance potential and their suitability for adaptation in these polluted sites have more significance, and purposefully such species are increasingly used for the phytoremediation process [11].
The interference of humans on the most productive wetland leads to the degradation of this unique ecosystem. About 50% of the world’s wetlands are lost due to anthropogenic activities [12]. Wetlands act as deposition sites for many pollutants, including toxic heavy metals, due to the peculiar nature of wetland soil. The presence of unwanted pollutants and increased amount of toxic metals in these sites disrupt the natural ecological balance, and it also affects the natural flora and fauna. The reclamation of polluted wetlands with plant species that are tolerant to toxic pollutants and other conditions in these sites (like high salinity, pH, low oxygen, etc.) will help to make these sites pollution free. The applications of halophytes for the decontamination of polluted sites were reported by many authors. The potential of the Bruguiera cylindrica to tolerate high levels of toxic metals like cadmium (Cd) and copper (Cu) was reported by Sruthi and Puthur [11], Sruthi and Puthur [13]. Shackira and Puthur [14] had revealed the Cd phytostabilization capacity of Acanthus ilicifolius. However, the published works have not explored the toxicity of Zn with respect to physiochemical and anatomical changes in A. ilicifolius. In this scenario, the present study deals with the characterization of physiochemical and anatomical alterations in a halophyte A. ilicifolius, subjected to Zn stress.
Materials and methods
Plant material and growth conditions
Healthy stem cuttings of A. ilicifolius L., a halophyte belonging to the family Acanthaceae with uniform size (20–30 cm), were selected. The cuttings were then exposed to15 μM of IBA for a period of 2 h for root instigation. After that, the cuttings were retained in distilled water taken in a beaker for two weeks, and subsequently, the rooted plantlet was shifted in a medium containing modified ½ strength Hoagland solution. Throughout the experiment, plantlets were kept in greenhouse under controlled conditions at 60 ± 2% relative humidity, 25 ± 5°C temperature and 12 h daylight ranging from 28 to 600 μmol m-2 s-1.
Experimental design
For a single set, 54 plantlets with a growth phase of 35 days were separated. Plants were then subjected to 4 mM ZnSO4 added to the medium and allowed to grow for 15d. Plantlets grown in the modified Hoagland solution without ZnSO4 were designated as control plants.
Morphological parameters
Leaf area.
Leaf area of the control plants, as well as ZnSO4 exposed samples, were calculated by graph paper method by outlining the margins of the leaf in a graph paper.
Root length.
Root length was calculated using a graduated scale. Before the measurement, the roots were cleaned using distilled water and blotted to dryness using filter paper.
Tolerance index percentage.
The Tolerance Index percentage of the plantlets pertaining to root length was calculated as per the protocol of Turner [15].
Tissue water status
Relative water content (RWC).
The relative water content of the plant samples was measured as per the protocol of Weatherley [16].
Osmotic potential (OP).
Determination of OP was carried out by using vapour pressure osmometer (Wescor, 5520, USA) and freeze thawing method was followed for the collection of cell sap from leaves as suggested by Hura, Grzesiak [17].
Estimation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
Superoxide (O2.−) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) content.
Superoxide content was determined following the method of Doke [18], and hydrogen peroxide content was determined by following the method of Junglee, Urban [19].
Electrolyte leakage (EL) % and membrane stability index (MSI).
The rate of EL and MSI was calculated by following the methods of Agarie, Hanaoka [20], and Sairam, Deshmukh [21], respectively. The electrical conductivity of the samples was measured using a conductivity meter (Eutech, Cyberscan 600, Vernon Hills, USA).
Photosynthetic efficiency
Photosynthetic pigments.
The pigments in the leaves samples were analyzed using the protocol of Arnon [22] and Lichtenthaler and Wellburn [23] for chlorophyll and carotenoid content, respectively.
Chl a fluorescence analysis.
Chl a fluorescence was carried out using Plant Efficiency Analyzer (Handy PEA; Hansatech Ltd., Norflok, UK). Data gained thus were evaluated using the Biolyzer HP 3 software (Bioenergetics Laboratory, University of Geneva, Switzerland).
PSI and PSII activities.
Isolated thylakoids were subjected to photochemical analysis polarographically with a Clark type oxygen electrode (DW1/AD, Hansatech), which was connected to a digital control box (OXYG1, Hansatech). The light dependent O2 uptake/evolution of the samples was observed by irradiating with saturating intensity of white light (~1800 μmol photons m−2 s−1), supplied by a 100 W halogen lamp (LS2, Hansatech). The PSI and PSII activities were expressed as μmol of O2 consumed /min/mg Chl and μmol of O2 consumed/evolved/min/mg Chl respectively
Primary metabolites
Protein content.
Total proteins of the samples were analyzed using Folin–Ciocalteau reagent following the protocol of Lowry, Rosebrough [24]. For the estimation of soluble protein, a protocol by Bradford [25] was followed. BSA was used as the standard.
Starch.
The amount of starch allocated in the samples was calculated following the protocol of Pitcher, Leavenworth [26]. The Standard used was soluble starch.
Element analysis in tissues
For the elemental distribution pattern analysis, root samples (dehydrated) of A. ilicifolius were analyzed with a high resolution, field emission scanning electron microscope (JSM 7600F, Magnification: 25 to 1,000,000 ×). Quantitative compositional examination of elements was also carried out on an Inca analyzer EDX (energy-dispersive X-ray) spectrophotometer (20 kV) following the method of Cocozza, Minnocci [27]. Three microspots in the root from both control and metal-treated plantlets were analyzed by EDXMA (energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis). The microspots were designated as Spectrum 1, Spectrum 2, and Spectrum 3.
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis
To prepare KBr discs for IR analysis, the dried powder of leaf and root samples were mixed with dried KBr (water free) in a ratio of 1:150 mg (sample:KBr) and pressed under 10 ton of hydraulic pressure.The disc was placed in the path of the instrument beam for measuring the solid-state spectrum in FT-IR (JASCO 4100, Shanghai, China). IR examination was registered in the range of 400–4000 cm-1 with 2 cm-1 resolution.
Anatomical parameters
Uniformly cut sections of both leaves and roots were fixed in a solution of Formalin-Acetic Acid (FAA). The sections were stained with toluidine blue O stain following the method of Khasim [28]. The sections were imaged with a camera attached microscope (LEICA-DMC 4500 camera, Wetzlar, Germany). The photomicrographs of the plant samples were taken by using SEM (JEOL, JSM - 6390LV, Tokyo, Japan).
Results
Morphological parameters
Leaf area.
Leaf area was measured on the newly formed leaves after the treatment, as no significant differences were found in the already matured leaves, which existed before the heavy metal treatment. Acanthus ilicifolius exhibited a reduction in the area of newly opened leaves when exposed to ZnSO4, and a significant reduction was recorded during the final stages of treatment (12-15d). On 15d of stress period, control leaves exhibited a significant increase in the leaf area. In the case of ZnSO4 treated plantlets, leaf area was reduced compared to the control leaves (Fig 1A).
Leaf area (A) and root length (B) of A. ilicifolius L. (control and ZnSO4 treated). The Fig 1A Control and Fig 1B Control panels are excluded from this article’s CC BY license. See the accompanying retraction notice for more information.
Root length.
A significant reduction in root length occurred in ZnSO4 treated plantlets with reference to control plantlets. However, a significant reduction was found in the final stages of stress i.e., from 9d to 15d. On 15d about 28% of the reduction was observed in root length of ZnSO4 treated plantlets compared to the control plantlets. Contrastingly, a double fold increase of growth was found in the control root within a period of 15d (Fig 1B).
Tolerance index (TI).
Tolerance index evaluated as the percentage difference in the ratio of root length reduction due to heavy metal treatments in comparison with the control indicated that there was a gradual decrease in the tolerance index during the entire treatment period of 15d. In ZnSO4 treated plantlets, the tolerance index recorded was 72% on 15d of treatment as compared to the control, which remained at 100% (Fig 2).
Tissue water status
Relative water content (RWC).
ZnSO4 treatment induced a decrease in RWC of the leaf with that of the control plantlets, and severe reduction in leaf RWC was recorded on 15d of treatment (47%) over the control plantlets. RWC of control plants during the entire treatment period of 15d was found to be stable (Table 1).
Osmotic potential (OP).
Osmotic Potential of leaf recorded a reduced value in the ZnSO4 treated plantlets from 1d of the treatment itself than that of the control plantlets, and the trend was the same throughout the period of treatment (15d) (41% decrease) (Table 1).
ROS and its effects
Superoxide content (O2.-).
There was a prominent increase in O2.- production on 15d when A. ilicifolius was subjected to ZnSO4. The ZnSO4 treated plantlets showed 117 and 119% increase in O2.- content in roots and leaves, respectively over the control plantlets (Table 1).
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) content.
The content of H2O2 was increased significantly in A. ilicifolius plants subjected to ZnSO4. There was a prominent increase in leaves (228%) and moderate enhancement in roots (38%) than the control plantlets on 15d of treatment (Table 1).
Membrane stability index (MSI).
Acanthus ilicifolius, when subjected to heavy metal treatment (ZnSO4), the stability of cell membranes was found to be negatively affected. The reduction was more prominent in root than leaf, and the reduction was to the level of 75% in root and 18% in leaf upon treatment with 4mM ZnSO4 on 15d with reference to the control (Table 1).
Electrolyte leakage (EL %).
The electrolyte leakage in A. ilicifolius plants subjected to ZnSO4 was higher than in the control plants. The increase was about 87% in leaf and 163% in root with respect to the control on 15d (Table 1).
Photosynthetic efficiency
Photosynthetic pigments.
During the initial treatment period, the total chlorophyll content of control plants tends to increase. But on 15d of ZnSO4 treatment, A. ilicifolius exhibited 52% reduction in total chlorophyll content. Unlike total chlorophyll content, in the plants treated with ZnSO4, carotenoid content increased as increasing the exposure period with reference to the control plants, and the highest carotenoid content (120%) was registered on 15d of the treatment (Table 1).
Chl a fluorescence analysis.
An alteration of PSII energy fluxes in response to heavy metal (ZnSO4) phytotoxicity in A. ilicifolius was visualized by phenomenological leaf models of photosynthetic apparatus. About 41% decrease was recorded in the density of active reaction centres (RC/CSm) in the plants subjected to ZnSO4 over the control samples. Specific energy fluxes for ABS/CSm also decreased significantly in ZnSO4 treatment (22%) as compared to the control samples. Similarly, energy trapping per cross section (TRo/CSm) and electron transport per cross section (ET0/CSm) decreased to the extent of 28% in ZnSO4 treated plants over the control plants. In A. ilicifolius, ZnSO4 treatment increased the parameters ABS/RC (32%), and DIo/RC (70%). However, ETo/RC decreased only slightly in the ZnSO4 treated plants with reference to the control plants (Fig 3).
Energy pipeline leaf model (A & B) of phenomenological fluxes (per cross section, CSm and per reaction centre, RC) in A. ilicifolius L. leaves treated with ZnSO4 (4 mM).
PSI and PSII activities.
Exposure to ZnSO4 resulted in an initial enhancement of PSI activity followed by a decreased activity i.e., 23% increase in PSI activity was recorded on 6d, and further, it decreased. During the final days of ZnSO4 treatment (15d) the PSI activity was reduced by 24% as compared to the control plants. During the entire treatment period (0-15d), PSI activity in the leaves of control plants did not show any marked difference. However, PSII activity of the control samples registered prominent enhancement on 15d with reference to 0d. PSII activity decreased when the treatment period increased in the ZnSO4 treated samples. About 4-fold reduction in PSII activity was recorded in the case of plants subjected to ZnSO4 treatments (15d) compared to the control plants (Table 1).
Primary metabolites
Protein content.
Significant enhancement in the total protein content was recorded in the tissues of leaf and root subjected to ZnSO4 treatment, and it increased by 36% on 15d with reference to the control samples. But in the roots, a rapid increase in total protein content was recorded on 3d itself, and 131% increase was recorded on 15d. A gradual increase of soluble protein was recorded in the leaves of ZnSO4 treated samples over the control plants during initial stages (0-6d), and a 3-fold increase was recorded during the later stages (9 and 12d respectively) of treatments. Likewise, maximum soluble protein content in the roots was registered on 15d of treatment i.e., about 5-fold enhancement was observed in samples subjected to ZnSO4 treatments with reference to the control plants (Table 1).
Starch.
In A. ilicifolius, starch content increased over a treatment phase of 0-15d, and a prominent increase was monitored in the root tissues with reference to the leaf tissues. In the case of ZnSO4 exposed plants, the highest amassing of starch content was recorded on 6d (3 fold) and after which the accumulation decreased significantly until 15d. Accumulation of starch induced by the ZnSO4 treatment in the root tissues of A. ilicifolius exhibited a significant reduction over the control samples, and the decrease was more on 15d of stress. About 11 fold decrease was registered in the plantlets exposed to ZnSO4 with reference to the control samples (Table 1).
Cellular distribution pattern of Zn
Bioaccumulation studies revealed that major content of Zn absorbed was retained in the roots rather than translocating to the aerial parts of the plants. Therefore, the cellular distributional pattern of the accumulated heavy metal (Zn) in A. ilicifolius root tissue subjected to ZnSO4 was further studied by the FEG-SEM EDX microanalysis. Three separate areas of root were analyzed by EDXMA in both controls and heavy metal treated samples, i.e., exodermis and cortex (spectrum 1), endodermis and vascular tissues (spectrum 2), and the inner pith (spectrum 3).
Marked variations were found in the cellular allocation pattern of heavy metal (Zn) in A.ilicifolius roots upon exposure to ZnSO4 (4 mM) with reference to the control samples. In the control roots, the distribution of Zn was found more or less uniform in the outer and middle portions and was decreased in the inner portion of the roots (Fig 4). Whereas in the plants treated with ZnSO4, the concentration of Zn in the outer region of the root was almost similar to that of control but a significant increase in the concentration of Zn was registered in the middle (33%) and inner regions (106%) over that of the control roots (Fig 5).
The SEM and EDX of three areas of root, spectrum 1 (exodermis and cortex), spectrum 2 (endodermis and vascular tissues) and spectrum 3 (pith). The Fig 4 SEM panels are excluded from this article’s CC BY license. See the accompanying retraction notice for more information.
The SEM and EDX of three areas of root, spectrum 2 (exodermis and cortex), spectrum 3 (endodermis and vascular tissues) and spectrum 8 (pith).
Influence of Zn in the distribution pattern of other essential elements
Macro-elements.
Considerable differences were recorded in the elemental (macro and micro-elements) distribution pattern in root tissues of A. ilicifolius subjected to ZnSO4 treatments. Among the different macro-elements, C, O, and Ca was found to be distributed in both the samples studied (control and ZnSO4 treatments) in a rather diffused and uniform manner throughout the root tissues. Distribution of C in the three regions of the root reduced in the case of plants subjected to ZnSO4 treatments with reference to the control. The least reduction in C distribution was observed in the outer region (exodermis and cortex) of roots in plants exposed to ZnSO4 treatments followed by the inner region, and the highest reduction was observed in the middle region (endodermis and vascular tissues) (Table 2). In the plants treated with heavy metals, O content was slightly reduced (22%) in the middle area of the roots (Table 2).
The macro and microelements concentrations (% weight) are shown for 3 different spots, i.e., spectrum 1 (outer region), spectrum 2 (middle region) and spectrum 3 (inner region).
The pattern of Ca distribution in the roots of A. ilicifolius (control and heavy metal treatment) was in the order; outer region<middle region<inner region. In the plants subjected to ZnSO4, Ca content recorded a significant decrease in all three regions of the root with reference to the control plants. The reduction was about 76, 50, and 52% in the outer, middle, and inner regions of the roots as compared to control roots. The distribution pattern of P and Mg was found to be below the detection limit in the EDXMA of all three regions of control roots. However, treatment with ZnSO4 induced increased distribution of P and Mg in the middle region of the root. The P content was remarkably enhanced in the middle region of the root treated with ZnSO4, and interestingly it was found that P was not in detectable levels in the control plants. ZnSO4 treatment hindered the uniform distribution of Mg, and this element was spotted only in the middle region. The K content was significantly enhanced in the plants exposed to ZnSO4, to a level that can be detected in the EDXMA profile, and in the control samples, K content was not detected. However, the enhancement of K was found only in the middle region (Table 2).
Micro-elements.
Microelement distribution specifically, Cl and Fe were not detected in control plants as well as in plants subjected to ZnSO4. In the roots of control as well as ZnSO4 exposed plants, elements such as Na and Si were found to be allocated in the inner regions. In the case of Si, 17% increase in content was found in the ZnSO4 treated plantlets. A prominent increase was observed in the Al allocation when A. ilicifolius was exposed to ZnSO4 and interestingly, Al content was not detected in the roots of control plants. In the case of plants subjected to ZnSO4, Al was present only in the middle and inner regions (Table 2).
Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy analysis
The IR spectra of both leaves and roots in control and ZnSO4 treated samples were analysed to compare the variation in functional groups in response to heavy metal stress. After 15d of growth, the leaves and root samples had absorption peaks at 3420, 2921, 2847, 1645, 1385, 1327, 1332, 1145, 1116, and 1048 cm-1. The peak intensity was significantly enhanced in the leaves and roots of ZnSO4 exposed plants with reference to the control (Fig 6A and 6B). Moreover, the absorbance of the peak at 3420 cm-1 increased in the roots of ZnSO4 treated plants, but a similar increase was not observed in the leaves (Fig 6C and 6D).
Control and ZnSO4 treated leaves (A & B) and Control and ZnSO4 treated roots (C&D).
Anatomical parameters
Leaf.
The scanning electron microscopic examination conducted in A. ilicifolius leaves on 15d revealed the presence of pear shaped diacytic stomata, which are spread all over the lamina. Stomata was limited to the abaxial surfaces of the leaf only. All the observed stomata were fully matured with prominent borders and guard cells, having beak like outgrowths (ledges) both in control as well as in the heavy metal treated plants. However, in the ZnSO4 treated plants, the stomata seem to be only partially opened with reference to the fully opened stomata in the control plants.
Glandular trichomes (salt secreting glands) were present on the adaxial surface of the A. ilicifolius leaves. The trichome is rectangular, short, and appears to consist of four cells forming a circular outline. One or two circles of epidermal cells were found to surround the gland. Treatment with ZnSO4 in A. ilicifolius caused a prominent enhancement in the number of trichomes on the adaxial leaf surface with reference to the control leaves (Fig 7).
Root.
The anatomy of A. ilicifolius roots exhibited significant changes when subjected to ZnSO4 for a period of 15d. Interestingly, A. ilicifolius, when subjected to ZnSO4, revealed a deeply stained/darkened layer of cells next to endodermis, forming a ring like structure around the xylem vessels, but such modifications were absent in control. Phloem cells in these plants were crushed/reduced in number. The central large parenchymatous pith cells were clear in both control and treated plants and were without any depositions, inclusions, or deeply stained masses of cells (Fig 8).
A&B- Control C&D–Zn SO4. En- Endodermis; X- Xylem; Ph-Phloem; P-Pith; De- Deposition.
Discussion
Zinc is an essential microelement that is beneficial to the plants, but its higher concentration induces impairment in the normal physiology of the plants [29]. According to Kochian [30] about 0.05–0.25 μmol/L of Zn in hydroponics solution is beneficial to the plants, and concentrations between 3 and 6 μmol/L showed toxicity symptoms. But exceptions to the above is the case of mangrove plants such as A. ilicifolius, which showed a higher level of tolerance towards Zn. We had earlier reported that A. ilicifolius can tolerate about 4 mM (4000 μmol/L), which was a very much high concentration as compared to the tolerance limit of other plants [31]. Therefore, in this investigation, the treatment concentration of ZnSO4 for imparting stress was taken as 4 mM.
Morphological characteristics
Acanthus ilicifolius showed prominent morphological changes in the root and leaves when exposed to 4 mM ZnSO4. The first proof for Zn toxicity is to envisage morphological modifications, which may include leaf chlorosis, necrosis of lamina, wilting of leaves, reduced growth of plantlets, etc. [32]. The ZnSO4 (4 mM) treatment caused prominent growth hindrance in terms of diminished area and length of leaves and roots, respectively in A. ilicifolius. Roots are the first plant part which is having a direct interaction with the toxic metal ions. Hence, roots display rapid and sensitive alterations in growth features. The decrease in the length of plant roots subjected to Zn stress is due to the inhibition of cell division and subsequent elongation [33]. All these changes in the root can reduce its growth in high ZnSO4 concentration, and it can also affect the uptake of water and nutrients [34, 35].
The tolerance index calculated on the basis of root length is considered an excellent criterion to assess the degree of plants tolerance towards heavy metal stress [36]. The low TI value recorded in A. ilicifolius, subjected to ZnSO4 treatment, indicates that the high concentration of Zn interferes severely with the cell division/elongation process of roots. A high concentration of the ZnSO4 interferes with the root cell mitosis and imposes root growth inhibition [37]. The stress induced reduction of the root length is a mechanism of tolerance in plants, and it helps to minimize the area of exposure towards metal stress [38].
Tissue water status
Heavy metal treatment induced reduction in leaf RWC and OP content of A. ilicifolius, points to the fact that the metals adversely disturb the tissue water status and can be correlated to the disrupted water intake. The higher concentration of Zn alters the water relationship by inhibiting root hair formation, and it results in decreased water absorption [39]. When imparted with Zn stress, there was the formation of depositions in xylem elements of both rice and maize, and it blocks the water and mineral transport into the upper shoot parts. Cellular accumulation of Zn in the roots of Populus deltoids was earlier reported, and this sort of depositions can interfere with the smooth conduct of water, especially if depositions occur in the xylem tissues [40, 41]. The decline in RWC observed in A. ilicifolius subjected to ZnSO4 was due to the diminished/impaired water transport rate through the xylem as confirmed by the xylem depositions [31].
To aggravate the situation of decreased RWC in shoot, the water transport through aquaporins are downregulated. The heavy metals induced alterations in the aquaporins structure were reported by Przedpelska-Wasowicz and Wierzbicka [42]. Also, high concentration of Zn exposure down regulates the aqual 1, the gene regulating the expression of aquaporins in Populus trichocarpa. The less intake of water from outside due to the Zn stress creates osmotic stress in plants. To counter this situation, the osmotic adjustment occurs inside the plants as part of their tolerance mechanism, which is discussed in the later section.
ROS and its effects
Heavy metal stress resulted in the enhanced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which includes superoxide radical and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and it causes oxidative stress in plants [10]. Oxidative stress disturbs the normal metabolic pathways and causes damages to macromolecules [43]. Kohli et al. [44] reported that the augmented production of ROS and resulting oxidative stress is the first line of toxicity towards heavy metals stress. The unregulated electron flows due to the augmented oxidation of metabolites in cell organelles, including chloroplast, peroxisomes, and mitochondria in heavy metal treated plants, cause a rapid increase in ROS production [43, 45]. The damages to the D1 and D2 proteins due to the heavy mental induced substitution of Ca2+ and Mg2+ results in the impairment of PSII and thereby water oxidizing complex, and it results in the uncoupling of electron transport chain in the chloroplast [46]. The enhancement in the superoxide radicals and hydrogen peroxide up to six-fold and three fold in a halophyte Kosteletzkya virginica exposed to Cd (5 μM) and similarly increased hydrogen peroxide content in response to heavy metals like Cd2+, Ni2+, and As3+ in Salicornia brachiate was reported earlier [47, 48].
In our study, Zn exposure to A. ilicifolius resulted in an increased accumulation of hydrogen peroxide (228%) and superoxide radicals (119%) content in leaves. This trend remained the same in roots also. A similar trend of increased accumulation of free radicals in rice and maize seedlings subjected to Zn stress was reported by Janeeshma, Kalaji [6]. The accumulation of free radicals in leaves at a higher proportion than in roots causes damages to organelle like chloroplast. The most targeted structure in the chloroplast is the photosystems. The damaged photosystems are inefficient in utilizing the absorbed energy, which goes astray and interacts with the free O2, generating more superoxides [49]. The significant increase of ROS further creates strong oxidative stress in A. ilicifolius, as reflected in increased electrolyte leakage (EL %) and reduced membrane stability (MSI). The increased accumulation of electrolytes in the cell due to the ROS induced membrane damage causes a reduction in the stability of the biomembranes. The membrane damage associated with Zn toxicity in A. ilicifolius was reported earlier by Shackira, Puthur [31]. The damage was significantly high both in roots and leaves of plants subjected to Zn stress as compared to control. In the present study, the loss of membrane stability and sharp increase of electrolyte leakage was observed is substantiating the earlier reports of membrane peroxidation due to ROS.
Photosynthetic efficiency
In response to the heavy metal stress, photosynthetic efficiency reduces due to multiple reasons such as stress induced inhibition of enzymes for pigment biosynthesis in leaves, metal induced alterations in photosynthetic enzymes, reduced PSI and PSII activities, metal induced changes in the ion homeostasis and plant water imbalance [50–52]. Reduced chlorophyll content and photosynthetic efficiency were registered in the case of A. ilicifolius subjected to Zn toxicity. This is because of the interference of Zn2+ ions in the biosynthesis/breakdown pathway of chlorophyll molecules. Moreover, there are chances for Zn to replace Mg ions in the chlorophyll molecules, leading to chlorophyll degradation [53]. The substitution of the Mg ions with Zn in chlorophyll molecules interferes in the process of photosynthesis through ligand binding property, which induces charge separation in PSII [54].
Impairment of the photosynthetic apparatus in plants subjected to Zn stress could be one of the main reasons for the reduced PSI and PSII activities. Earlier reports indicate that Hill reaction is mainly susceptible to Zn stress [55]. The alteration in the shape and disorganized thylakoid membrane in Zn stress was reported by Basile, Sorbo [56]. The results of chlorophyll a fluorescence clearly showed the reduction in the photosynthetic efficiency of A. ilicifolius subjected to Zn stress. The Zn induced alterations in the chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters such as RC/CSm, ABS/CSm, TRo/CSm, ET0/CSm, ABS/RC, DIo/RC and ETo/RC underlines the toxicity of Zn towards the process of photosynthesis. This toxic metal interrupts the functioning of the oxygen evolving complex and causes degradation of proteins in the PSII leading to reduced PSII activity [57]. The plants growing in Zn contaminated regions absorb excess Zn into the biomass, and it causes competition with Mn2+ in the water splitting complex and even replaces the Mn2+ with Zn. It results in the inhibition of electron transport and decreases the PSII efficiency [58]. The decrease of ABS/CSm and ETo/CSm showed a decreasing pattern upon ZnSO4 treatment, which could be majorly due to the inactivation of reaction centre complexes. In addition to this, electron transport might also be contributed by the decrease in pool size of QA, which induces enhanced energy dissipation (DIo/CSm).
Exposure of A. ilicifolius to ZnSO4 causes augmentation in the accumulation of superoxide and hydrogen peroxide and can lead to oxidative stress, causing damages to the photosystems. The increment in the carotenoid content in the leaves of ZnSO4 treated A. ilicifolius is a tolerance strategy against heavy metals by acting as an antioxidant and protecting the photosystems. The over accumulated carotenoids have the potential to reduce the oxidative stress caused due to Zn stress [59]. The accumulation of carotenoid pigment in the halophytic plant Sesuvium portulacastrum during Zn stress was reported by Kalaikandhan, Vijayarengan [60]. Besides their proactive role as an antioxidant, carotenoids safeguard the photosystem by involving in the assembly of PSI and ensuring the stability of light harvesting complex proteins as well as thylakoid membrane stabilization [61, 62].
Primary metabolites
The increased protein content observed in A. ilicifolius tissues subjected to ZnSO4 treatment would be majorly on account of the overproduced ‘stress proteins’ like phytochelatins, metallothioneins, and heat shock proteins which protects the plant from the damages caused by the toxic metal ions. Induction of protein synthesis is an important and immediate effect of metal stressed plants [63]. The synthesis of HSP’s in response to heavy metal stress is thought to prevent misfolding of proteins, protein aggregation, and the degradation of proteins under stress [64]. The HSP70, HSP60, and chloroplast sHSP groups are specifically protective towards toxic metals, including Zn [65]. It has been proved that the production of chloroplast small HSP is an early response to heavy metal accumulation in leaves, and it function to limit the photosynthetic damage [66]. Moreover, membrane transport proteins specific to Zn2+, can also significantly contribute towards the enhanced protein content in the case of A. ilicifolius treated with ZnSO4.
The increase in starch accumulation at the initial stages of ZnSO4 treatment in A. ilicifolius is certainly the contribution of improved photosynthesis, but later stages showed a reduction in starch content due to the Zn induced impairment in photosynthesis. Starch granules present in the chloroplast act as a reserve food and could be utilized during the stress condition by conversion to sucrose [67]. The conversion of starch, a non-solute form of sucrose, can add up to build up the osmoticum, which turns up to be necessary to encounter the reduced RWC in leaves, as discussed earlier. Besides, excess amount of heavy metals such as Zn inhibit the activity of key enzymes in starch synthesis, including phosphorylase and thereby prevents the synthesis of starch [68].
Elemental distribution pattern
Zinc is a divalent cation and will fight for the absorption of important macro/micro-elements like Ca, Cu, Mg, Fe, etc., across the membranes. These metal ions are readily taken up by plants through cation transport systems which is involved in the uptake of essential elements, like members of ZIP, NRAMP families, or Ca2+ channels and transporters [69]. Mineral nutrients are not only required for plant growth and development but are also helpful to alleviate different kinds of stresses like heavy metal stress [70, 71].
Treatment of ZnSO4 caused a reduction of C in the roots of A. ilicifolius with reference to the control plants. The macronutrient C forms part of macromolecules viz. carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and many other compounds, and it is thus part of all macromolecules [72]. The reduction of C is due to the limited uptake of CO2 by the leaves and, consequently, reduced carbon assimilation [73, 74]. This is in correlation with the partially closed stomata due to the effect of Zn stress, limiting the entry of CO2 necessary for C fixation. Moreover, the decline in PSI and PSII activities could add to the fact of reduced C fixation and thus influence the C distribution.
As compared to the other elements, the distribution of O was not severely affected in A. ilicifolius by the heavy metal treatment. Significant enhancement of Mg in A. ilicifolius roots treated with heavy metals might display the influential effect of these elements on a series of physio-chemical activities of root [75]. Mg is a decisive component in roots that is involved in various fundamental biochemical activities, such as ATP formation, enzyme kinetics, DNA and RNA replication/assembly, etc. [75]. This powerful influence of Mg in the biochemical activities was visualized here in A. ilicifolius samples subjected to heavy metals by the enhanced respiration rate and enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities.
The enhanced level of K in the ZnSO4 treated roots accounts for the increased activity of antioxidant enzymes, and K also acts as a coenzyme or activator of several crucial enzymes [76]. Potassium is the most abundant cation in plants and is present in high concentrations in cytosol and chloroplast. A large number of enzymes are activated by K+ ions and persuade elongation of the cell, and also maintains osmotic balance. The significant increase was observed in the P content of A. ilicifolius roots when subjected to ZnSO4 treatment, whereas in the control plantlets, P content was below the detection limit. It has been earlier reported that increased phosphate supply promotes growth sufficiently so as to dilute the excess Zn concentration [77–79]. The dilution of Zn concentration in A. ilicifolius roots reduces the toxicity and also partially prevents growth retardation. In addition, P is a constituent of ATP, nucleic acids, phospholipids, and certain coenzymes. The higher P content registered in the roots of ZnSO4 treated plantlets could be justified with the increased ATP production as revealed by the increased mitochondrial activity and activation of the antioxidant enzymes.
Remarkable augmentation of Si was observed in the root tissues of A. ilicifolius when treated with ZnSO4 as revealed by the SEM-EDX microanalysis. Healthy growth and development turn out to be necessary, especially when plants are subjected to heavy metal stress. It has been proved that enhanced Si content could very well avert the ill effects of heavy metal stress in Rhizophora apiculata [80–83].
The cellular distribution pattern of Ca was differentially influenced in the root tissues of A. ilicifolius when subjected to ZnSO4. Treatment with ZnSO4 caused a significant decline in Ca levels. Calcium, being a crucial constituent of various signaling pathways, is readily absorbed by the roots and moved to shoots through the xylem, thereby regulating several physiochemical activities [84, 85]. The movement of stomata is highly influenced by Ca2+, and it also acts as a secondary messenger for the regulation of guard cells [86–92]. The reduction of Ca affects the stomatal functioning in a major way in the case of plants subjected to heavy metal stress [93]. Pilon-Smits [94], has reported that Al is a favorable element promoting the growth of plants. Moreover, Al enhances the resistance towards different stresses, including toxic metals. The enhanced content of Al in the plantlets of A. ilicifolius subjected with ZnSO4 might be a tolerance strategy of A. ilicifolius towards toxic metal ions.
FTIR
Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) is an accurate strategy to detect the metal induced modifications in the structural composition of biomolecules of root and leaf samples [13]. The results of this study revealed that A. ilicifolius treated with ZnSO4 had peaks at 3420, 2921, 2847, 1645, 1385, 1327, 1332, 1145, 1116, and 1048 cm-1 indicating the presence of OH, NH2 deformation, CH3 deformation, C-O-H stretch, C-O-H stretch, C-O-C stretch, respectively. Of these, stress induced variations were prominently observed in the band corresponding to CH3 deformation (1385 cm-1) related to hemicellulose enrichment in xylem cell walls. This is in accordance with the thick-walled cells observed in the anatomy of roots exposed to ZnSO4, which is discussed in the forthcoming section. Zinc induced increase of OH groups was also observed, indicating the amplification of phenolic biosynthesis in plant cells.
Anatomical parameters
In control plantlets, fully opened stomata were observed as compared to the partially closed stomata in the ZnSO4 treated plantlets. Stomatal opening is regulated by the controlled uptake of K+ and maintains an adequate level of HCO3- in guard cells by carbonic anhydrase (CA). Zinc plays a greater role in controlling the stomatal opening and in the regulation of CA. It has been reported that Zn, at lower levels, increased the number of open stomata, while higher concentrations were found to be toxic, resulting in the closure of stomata [95, 96]. Correlating to this, in A. ilicifolius treatment with ZnSO4 caused partial closure of stomata which was visible from the SEM image of the leaves ZnSO4 treatment induced significant enhancement in the number of glandular trichomes in the leaves of A. ilicifolius could support the removal of excess Zn2+ via leaf as suggested by several authors [97, 98].
Histochemical analysis of A. ilicifolius subjected to ZnSO4 revealed significant modifications in the root anatomy. The densely stained ring like structure near the xylem vessels indicates that the increasingly absorbed Zn is complexed with the outer portions of the xylem elements. This is in correlation with the TF value, which revealed that a significant amount of Zn is accumulated in this region. Although the endodermis provides resistance for the entry of Zn2+, there might be some means of the influx of Zn2+ towards the stele, as suggested by MacFarlane and Burchett [99]. Thus the higher Zn content recorded in the stellar region by EDXMA of root tissue of plantlets treated with ZnSO4 indicates the increased tendency of root tissue to uptake Zn2+, which gets complexed with the cell wall of xylem vessels without much quantity getting transferred to the shoot.
A. ilicifolius exhibited high level of tolerance to heavy metals, such as Zn. The Zn induced enhancement in protein content, altered anatomical features such as more Zn deposition around the root’s core vasculature, as well as molecular changes including modifications in the functional groups such as OH, NH2, and CH3 deformation, as well as C-O-H and C-O-C stretch in the root and leaf samples clearly demonstrated A. ilicifolius adaptability and tolerance towards Zn.
Conclusion
Heavy metal treatment induced significant reduction in the plant growth is a possible mechanism for diverting the resources from growth to maintenance processes so as to meet the additional energy cost to counter the stress situation. The observed reduction in photosynthetic yield was mainly due to the decrease in photosynthetic pigments and electron transport, as well as the disrupted gaseous exchange caused by the partially closed stomata. Micro and macro-elemental distribution pattern in the root tissue was significantly influenced by heavy metal exposure. Tolerance towards the excess toxic metal ions in the tissue of A. ilicifolius is aided by the modified anatomical features. The physio-anatomical modifications and elemental distribution pattern of A. ilicifolius are essential to cope with excess metal ions.
Supporting information
S1 Fig. Growth of A. ilicifolius plantlets cultured in Hoagland solution exposed to different concentrations of ZnSO4 (0,2,4,6,8,10 mM ZnSO4).
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263753.s001
(DOCX)
Acknowledgments
NGS and JTP acknowledge the financial assistance provided by the Kerala State Council for Science, Technology, and Environment in the form of KSCSTE Research Grant (KSCSTE/5179/2017-SRSLS). The authors extend their sincere thanks to the Department of Science & Technology (DST), Government of India, for granting funds under the Fund for Improvement of S&T Infrastructure (FIST) programme SR/FST/LSI-532/2012. The authors gratefully acknowledge the technical assistance provided by the Central Sophisticated Instrumentation Facility (CSIF), University of Calicut, Malappuram, Kerala. We acknowledge the service rendered by Dr. Muhammed Noufal K, Assistant professor, CKG Memorial Government College, Perambra, Kozhikode, Kerala, India Pin:673525. The authors would also like to extend their sincere appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project Number (RSP-2021/236), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
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