Advertisement
Browse Subject Areas
?

Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field.

For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click here.

  • Loading metrics

Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Altered kinetics of circulating progenitor cells in cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) associated vasoplegic patients: A pilot study

Abstract

Vasoplegia observed post cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) is associated with substantial morbidity, multiple organ failure and mortality. Circulating counts of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and endothelial progenitor cells (EPC) are potential markers of neo-vascularization and vascular repair. However, the significance of changes in the circulating levels of these progenitors in perioperative CPB, and their association with post-CPB vasoplegia, are currently unexplored. We enumerated HSC and EPC counts, via flow cytometry, at different time-points during CPB in 19 individuals who underwent elective cardiac surgery. These 19 individuals were categorized into two groups based on severity of post-operative vasoplegia, a clinically insignificant vasoplegic Group 1 (G1) and a clinically significant vasoplegic Group 2 (G2). Differential changes in progenitor cell counts during different stages of surgery were compared across these two groups. Machine-learning classifiers (logistic regression and gradient boosting) were employed to determine if differential changes in progenitor counts could aid the classification of individuals into these groups. Enumerating progenitor cells revealed an early and significant increase in the circulating counts of CD34+ and CD34+CD133+ hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) in G1 individuals, while these counts were attenuated in G2 individuals. Additionally, EPCs (CD34+VEGFR2+) were lower in G2 individuals compared to G1. Gradient boosting outperformed logistic regression in assessing the vasoplegia grouping based on the fold change in circulating CD 34+ levels. Our findings indicate that a lack of early response of CD34+ cells and CD34+CD133+ HSCs might serve as an early marker for development of clinically significant vasoplegia after CPB.

Citation: Nandi S, Potunuru UR, Kumari C, Nathan AA, Gopal J, Menon GI, et al. (2020) Altered kinetics of circulating progenitor cells in cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) associated vasoplegic patients: A pilot study. PLoS ONE 15(11): e0242375. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242375

Editor: Antonio Cannatà, King's College London, UNITED KINGDOM

Received: May 21, 2020; Accepted: October 31, 2020; Published: November 19, 2020

Copyright: © 2020 Nandi et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: 1)URP received National Post-Doctoral fellowship File No. PDF/2017/002087, SERB-DST, Government of India (https://serbonline.in/SERB/HomePage). 2) MD received (a) Institute Research & Development Award (IRDA): (IRA/14-15/003/RESF/MADH); IIT Madras; (https://www.cse.iitm.ac.in/awards_details.php?arg=NDQ=) (b)Impacting Research Innovation & Technology (IMPRINT): (35-1816/2016-T.S.-1); Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of India (https://www.imprint-india.org/) (c) Exploratory Research Project (ERP): (BIO/18-19/873/RFER/MADH) (https://mhrd.gov.in/). 3) CK, GIM and RS acknowledge funding from the Computational Biology project at their institute funded by the Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India.(http://dae.gov.in/) NO- The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: Authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Abbreviations: CPB, Cardiopulmonary bypass; HSCs, Hematopoietic stem cells; EPC, Endothelial progenitor cells; NE, Norepinephrine; FITC, Fluorescein isothiocyanate; APC, Allophycocyanin; ICU, Intensive care unit; MAP, Mean Arterial Pressure; SBP, Systolic blood pressure; DBP, Diastolic blood pressure; CART, Classification And Regression Tree

1. Introduction

Vasoplegia is a well recognized post-surgical complication of cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) [1,2]. Endothelial activation and dysfunction are considered to be pivotal in the pathophysiology of vasoplegia. Kortekaas et al reported that pre-existing endothelial cell activation, determined by increased levels of von Willebrand factor (vWF) and soluble P-selectin at baseline, predisposes patients to vasoplegia [3]. Brettner et al have suggested that deviations in endothelial injury markers in a CPB group, as compared to an off-pump surgery group, identifies a correlation between ischemia/reperfusion and the extent of endothelial activation [4]. Circulating endothelial cells have also been reported to be elevated at baseline in cardiac surgery patients compared to healthy individuals, with their numbers further increasing post CPB [5]. Additionally, impairment in endothelial barrier function is observed during the course of cardiac surgery and post-surgery, when assessed through the prism of the angiopoetin-Tie2 system [6–8].

Though multiple studies suggest that a compromised endothelium along with continued vascular damage during CPB contributes to vasoplegic syndrome, the status of vascular repair and vascular progenitors in these settings is ill-characterized. Circulating haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs: CD34+CD133+) and endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs: CD34+VEGFR2+) are known to home in for repair, to the site of damaged endothelium and the vessel wall [9]. Reduced numbers and an altered function of EPCs are associated with ischemic cardiovascular diseases [10,11]. However, it is not clear how their circulating counts vary during the unfolding of the vasoplegic syndrome in CPB.

We sought to determine the changes in the circulating counts of these progenitors and their relationship to the severity of vasoplegia in cardiac patients undergoing CPB. We also trained machine learning methods (logistic regression and gradient boosting) to assess the accuracy of the vasoplegic categorization of patients based on these markers.

2. Materials and methods

2.1 Materials

Vacutainers for blood collection K2-EDTA (Cat: 367863) and serum separation (Cat: 367812) were purchased from Becton Dickinson Biosciences. Fluorescent antibodies such as anti-human CD133-Phycoerythrin (PE) (Cat: 130-080-801) were purchased from Miltenyi Biotech Anti-human CD34-Fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) (Cat: 343604), anti-human VEGFR2-Allophycocyanin (APC) (Cat: 359916) and isotype control antibodies like mouse IgG2a-FITC (Cat: 400207) and mouse IgG1k-PE (Cat: 400113), were purchased from BioLegend. Other dry chemicals were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich.

2.2 Surgical procedure

Cardiac surgery was performed according to local standardized protocols. All surgical procedures were performed via a midline sternotomy under normothermic CPB. Blood cardioplegia was used for all the cardiac cases. The cardioplegic solution was a mixture of patient’s own blood and crystalloid solution. The crystalloid solution was a mixture of Plasmalyte (500 mL) and St. Thomas' solution (20 mL). The delivery was done by the use of a specialized roller pump (Sarns Medical Systems) at the ratio of 4:1 where 4 parts of blood and 1 part of the mixed cardioplegia solution were used. In lung transplant the lung preservative used was Perfadex solution (Medisan, Uppsala, Sweden) containing low-potassium (K+ 6 mmol/L) and extracellular electrolytes (Na+ 138 mmol/L; Cl- 142 mmol/L; Mg++ 0.8 mmol/L; Dextran 40 g); H2PO4- 0.8 mmol/L; Glucose (0.91 g); Osmolarity (292 mOsm/L).

2.3 Study design and sample collection

Following informed consent, subject recruitment and sample collection were done at the Cardiothoracic Surgical unit of Apollo Hospitals, Chennai. The study design was reviewed and approved by the Institute Ethics Committees of Apollo Hospital [AMH-001/01-18] as well as the Indian Institute of Technology Madras [IEC# IEC/2016/02/MDX-2/05]. A total of 19 elective cardiac surgery individuals (8 male and 11 female), age range 40–70 years (adults), and undergoing CPB, were recruited. Written consent as prescribed by the institutional ethics committees was obtained from patients a day prior to their operation. Individuals with emergency trauma surgery or any infectious diseases were excluded.

The blood samples were collected in K2-EDTA vacutainers for subsequent flow cytometry from a central venous catheter placed in the jugular vein when the patient was not on the CPB pump. When the patient was on pump, blood was collected from the inlet of the pump at specified time intervals as described below. The whole blood collected was processed within 2 hours of collection for flow cytometry. The time points for blood collection were: (1) ‘Post-Induction’ (time after the induction of anesthesia prior to the start of surgery); (2) ‘Sternotomy’ (beginning of surgery after median sternotomy); (3) ‘0 hour’ (start of the CPB pump); (4) ‘1 hour’ (1 hour on pump); (5) ‘6 hour’(end of surgery when the patient was shifted to ICU) (6) ‘24 hour’ (time point when the patient is in ICU for recovery). These time points and study design are summarized in Fig 1. To minimize inter patient bias which may contribute to variability, we considered each patient’s baseline i.e. ‘Post-Induction’ as the control for that patient.

thumbnail
Download:
Fig 1. Study design showing time points of sample collection.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242375.g001

2.4 Grouping of subjects based on severity of vasoplegia

In the absence of a standard consensus for the definition of clinical vasoplegia [12,13], we choose to categorize our recruited subjects based on the total dose of norepinephrine (NE) infused in these subjects. In most cardiothoracic units, low levels of NE (usually total dose <0.02mg/kg body weight), are given in all patients post-surgery. This dosage is increased only if a patient further develops vasoplegia. We thus reasoned that increased use of pressor beyond 0.02mg/Kg body weight would identify clinical worsening of vasoplegia. Hence, we choose a cutoff dose of total NE above 0.02mg/kg body weight to group the subjects into two groups. Among the recruited 19 subjects, 11 subjects received NE <0.02mg/Kg body weight and were classified as a clinically insignificant vasoplegia group or group 1 (G1). The remaining 8 subjects who received NE >0.02mg/Kg body weight were termed as a clinically significant vasoplegia group or group 2 (G2).

2.5 Enumeration of circulating progenitor cells via flow cytometry

For enumeration of circulating vascular progenitors in whole blood, cells were fixed and erythrocytes lysed using fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS) lysing solution. Blocking was performed with 5% Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS) and 0.2% Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) for 30 min followed by staining with CD133-PE, CD34-FITC and VEGFR2-APC antibodies for 40 minutes at 4°C. Corresponding isotype immunoglobulin G (IgG) 1-PE and IgG2a-FITC and IgG2aκ-APC antibodies were used as controls. A minimum of 500,000 events were acquired and scored as per EUROSTAR guidelines using a FACS Aria flow cytometer (Becton Dickinson) [14]. Data were analyzed using the Flowjo software program (Version 7.6.1, Tree Star Inc.). Following appropriate gating, CD34+, CD133+, VEGFR2+, EPC (CD34+VEGFR2+), HSC (CD34+CD133+) and CD133+VEGFR2+ cells (S1 Fig) were enumerated from lympho-monocyte fraction and are represented as the number of cells per million lympho-monocytic events.

2.6 Statistical analysis of clinical data

Progenitor cell counts are expressed as mean ± SEM of the number of cells counted per 1 million lymphomonocyte events. Clinical data are also expressed either as mean ± SEM or Median. That the data were normally distributed was confirmed through a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Comparisons within and across groups were performed using paired and unpaired Student’s t-test, respectively. For non-parametric data, the Mann-Whitney test and Wilcoxon matched pair test were employed.

2.7 Mathematical model to assess the characterization of study subjects

We used two machine learning techniques, logistic regression and gradient boosting, as prediction tools. Logistic regression is a machine learning tool used for binary classification problems. In linear regression, a linear function of inputs is fitted to match output on training data. The output is a real number.

In logistic regression, the output value is transformed using a cost function known as a logistic or sigmoid function to return a value between zero and one, which can be interpreted as a probability value. This output can be thresholder to predict a value of 0 or 1. We used the implementation in scikit-learn [15].

Gradient boosting is a decision-tree-based algorithm for classification problems [16]. A decision tree is a tree of possible choices to be made given the input data. In a classification and regression tree (CART), unlike a traditional decision tree, the leaves indicate possible scores for outcomes, rather than binary choices. In gradient boosting, an ensemble of trees is used where each tree is trained to minimize errors of preceding trees. This has become a very popular machine-learning tool for tabular data in recent years, here we use the XGBoost package [17].

Based on input parameters, logistic regression and gradient boosting were used to predict whether a patient belongs to G1 or G2. Predictions were validated using “leave one out”—each patient was left out once, and the machine-learning model was trained on the remaining patients and tested on the left-out patient. The significance of these predictions was assessed using p-values, i.e. the probability of a similar or better fit happening by chance. To calculate these, we compared the results of 10,000 randomizations. Random data were generated by shuffling the vasoplegia categorization (that is, redistributing the category labels among the patients, ensuring that there are still the same number of patients as are there in G1 and G2. Here, the p-value is the fraction of random data-sets with a similar or lower mean absolute error (MAE; the average of the absolute value of the error over all individuals) to the real data. Similar results (not shown) were obtained with a more aggressive randomization, where for each patient, we retain the vasoplegia categorization but pick a random number between the minimum and maximum of the original graph as the log fold-change value.

3. Results

3.1 Characteristics of study subjects

A drop in the Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) from pre-CPB to post-CPB despite administration of inotropes and presence of hyper-lactemia indicates the onset of vasoplegia [1,18]. Hence, we measured intra-arterial systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and MAP in all 19 study subjects. We observed a significant decrease, not only in the MAP post-CPB at 24 hours but also in DBP at 24 hours compared to the pre-surgery state (Fig 2A). Additionally, levels of lactate in blood were significantly higher after 1 hour on the pump, peaking at 6 hours and remaining significantly high even at 24 hours compared to post-induction (Fig 2B). These parameters were similar for all 19 subjects in our study group, except for the difference in dosage of noradrenaline or norepinephrine (NE) infusion post-CPB.

thumbnail
Download:
Fig 2. Characterization of study subjects.

(A) Graph showing blood pressure changes between Pre-Operation and Post-Operation in all the study individuals (n = 19). (B) Lactate concentration from blood at different time points in all the individuals (n = 19) measured in mmol/L. Data shown as Mean ± SEM. ** p ≤ 0.01, ***p ≤ 0.001, **** p ≤ 0.0001 vs respective control. Mann-Whitney’s test and Wilcoxon matched pair test were employed.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242375.g002

Table 1 shows the baseline anthropometric and clinical characteristics and intake of medication such as Angiotensin II converting enzymes inhibitors (ACEI) and Angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) of the clinically classified groups G1 and G2. As shown in Table 1, there was no significant difference in age, gender ratio, BMI, heart and respiratory rate, DBP, SBP, and MAP as well as in the % intake of ACEIs, ARBs, statins, steroids except for beta-receptor blockers (β- blockers) between the two groups. The intake of β- blockers is almost two fold in G2 subjects. The percentage of existent comorbidities in recruited subjects such as diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia and renal failure, along with cardiac morbidities such as heart failure, right ventricular dysfunction (RV dysfunction) and pulmonary artery hypertension (PAH) are shown in Table 1. The percentage of RV dysfunction in G2 subjects is higher compared to G1 subjects. A significant increase in urea for G2 is in concordance with observed renal failure in 25% subjects of this group.

thumbnail
Download:
Table 1. Anthropometric and clinical characteristics of CPB individuals at baseline.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242375.t001

The post-operative clinical outcomes for the two groups are shown in Table 2. The cardiac function measured as left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) post CPB, showed normal values of more than 55% for both the groups (Table 2). However, MAP was maintained above 70mmHg for both groups with infusion of vasopressors (Table 2). Intraoperative parameters such as fluid balance have an effect on the post CPB outcomes like vasoplegia, organ dysfunction and mortality [1,19]. Hence, we determined the intraoperative fluid balance change (FBC) during CPB in terms of the difference in volume of fluid intake and output (I & O) for each subject [20] (calculated from the perfusionist chart). The fluid balance change is expressed as positive, negative or zero fluid balance and the percentage of subjects under each fluid balance state in a group is shown in Table 2. The percentage of positive fluid balance subjects is higher in group 2 (75%) compared to group 1 (36.4%). (A positive fluid balance, also known as fluid overload, is correlated to higher mortality and organ dysfunction [21,22]). Moreover, neither group had a trigger Hematocrit (Hct) for transfusion, (Median %Hct Group 1 = 34; Group 2 = 28). The higher incidence of positive fluid balance in G2 reflects the higher incidence of vasoplegia in that group, although it is difficult to establish causality.

thumbnail
Download:
Table 2. Clinical and Biochemical characteristics of individuals at intra and post-CPB.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242375.t002

There was a significant difference in post CPB characteristics such as the duration of ventilation (p<0.01) and the duration of ICU (p = 0.056) and hospital stay (p<0.05) which were all higher in case of G2 subjects, confirming the severity of clinical vasoplegia in G2 compared to G1 subjects. Among the measured biochemical parameters there was a significant increase in WBC count and a significant decrease in lymphocyte count for G2 compared to G1 subjects (Table 2).

The predictive risk assessment score (EuroSCORE II, SOFA II score and APACHE II) is provided in Tables 1 and 2. The EuroSCORE II (European System for Cardiac Operative Risk Evaluation II) score, used as a pre-operative index of patients’ risk profile [23,24] in terms of estimated percentage mortality (% mortality), is shown in Table 1. This score takes into account patient related factors (anthropometric and comorbidities), cardiac related factors (pre-operative LV function, recent myocardial infarction and pulmonary hypertension) and operation related factors (urgency and weight of intervention). The SOFA II (Sequential organ Failure Assessment II) score is used to determine level of organ dysfunction and mortality risk in ICU patients (Table 2). APACHE II (Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II) score estimates ICU mortality (Table 2) [25–27]. The categories of post-operative ICU parameters taken into account during calculation of SOFA II and APACHE II are vitals (temperature, mean arterial pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate) and blood chemistry (urea, creatinine, bilirubin and electrolytes); oxygenation parameters (PaO2, FiO2 and mechanical ventilation); and hematology (Hematocrit, WBC). The value signifying the most extreme deviation from the normal for each physiological variable within a 24 hour period post operation is used for scoring.

As shown in Table 1, the pre-operative risk score, EuroSCORE II predicts twice the estimated % mortality for group 2 (3.05%) compared to group 1 (1.25%), indicating the presence of higher risk for group 2 subjects in developing clinical complications upon cardiac surgery. The post-operative ICU score SOFA II indicate higher % mortality (26.3%) in group 2 compared to group 1 (18.2%) while the APACHE II score showed similar score values and estimated % mortality among the groups (Table 2). This establishes the need to carry out studies which determine biomarkers, especially vascular markers which can provide independent predictions, and may also complement risk scores to determine the severity of post-operative clinical outcomes.

3.2 Circulating levels of progenitor cells

Changes in the circulating levels of progenitors were enumerated in the individuals using flow cytometry. As can be seen in Fig 3A, for the combined 19 on-pump cases, we observed an early increase in CD34+ cells followed by CD133+ and VEGFR2+ cells. The CD34+ cells count peaked at 1 hour and remained elevated at 6 hours (a 25-fold increase compared to post induction), but gradually decreased by 24 hours (Fig 3A). There was a 15-fold increase in CD133+ cell counts which peaked at 6 hours compared to post induction, later dipping at 24 hours (Fig 3A). In contrast, VEGFR2+ cells had a late response to CPB, which increased gradually post-CPB from 6 hours onwards and remained high at 24 hours (statistically non-significant) (Fig 3A). With regard to double positive cells, EPCs rose from 1 hour onwards and remained elevated at 24 hours (Fig 3B) whereas HSC peaked at 6 hours but dipped by 24 hours (Fig 3B). CD133+VEGFR2+ cells did not show any observable change in numbers upon CPB in the study subjects.

thumbnail
Download:
Fig 3. Fold changes in circulating counts of measured progenitor cells for all 15 on pump cases (4 were considered outlier by statistical package for the social sciences).

(A) Line graph showing fold change in single positive cell counts for CD34+, CD133+& VEGFR2+ cells and (B) Line graph summarizing changes in double positive cell counts for HSCs (CD34+CD133+) and EPCs (CD34+VEGFR2+). Data is plotted as mean ± SEM. *p ≤ 0.05, ** p ≤ 0.01 vs post induction, $ p ≤ 0.05, $ $ p ≤ 0.01 vs sternotomy and # vs 6 hours. Mann-Whitney’s test and Wilcoxon matched pair test were employed accordingly.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242375.g003

3.3 Circulating levels of progenitor cells and levels of lactate in G1 versus G2 subjects

We then sought to determine how changes in circulating progenitors differed between G1 and G2. As can be seen from Fig 4A and 4B, the G1 individuals had an early increase in the number of CD34+ from 0 hour onwards, whereas this increase was delayed in G2 individuals. In G2 individuals, an increase in the cell number with regard to CD34+ and HSCs was observed only at 6 hours. EPCs started rising from 1 hour onwards in G1 individuals and remained elevated till 24 hours. This response was blunted in G2 (Fig 4C). The other cell types, i.e. VEGR2+ cells and CD133+, did not show any statistically significant trend for G1 and G2 subjects.

thumbnail
Download:
Fig 4. Circulating counts of progenitor cells in individuals undergoing CPB at various intra-operative time points in G1 and G2 study individuals.

Line graph showing fold change in cell counts for (A) CD34+ (B) HSC (CD34+CD133+) and (C) EPC (CD34+VEGFR2+) in vasoplegic groups namely G1 and G2. Data is plotted as mean ± SEM. *p ≤ 0.05, ** p ≤ 0.01 vs G2 at that point. Mann-Whitney’s test and Wilcoxon matched pair test were employed accordingly.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242375.g004

3.4 Assessing vasoplegia grouping for individual patients using machine learning

The log-fold change of CD34+ marker for each patient was plotted on the y-axis at different time points with respect to three baselines: induction (B1), sternotomy (B2) and 0 hour (P0) against the case number shown arranged in increasing order of amount of nor-epinephrine dosage given to patients on the x-axis (as in Fig 5A–5C respectively). We observed that, on using CD34+ as a marker, the 0-hour log fold change with respect to baselines B1 i.e induction (Fig 5A) and B2 i.e sternotomy (Fig 5B) and 24 hours fold change with respect to baseline B2 (Fig 5C) show the clearest visual trend in representing the difference between G1 and G2.

thumbnail
Download:
Fig 5. Bar graph showing log fold change of CD34+ marker for each patient, identified by case number, computed at different time points with respect to three baselines: Induction, sternotomy and 0 hr.

(A) Log fold change at on-pump 0hr with respect to induction. (B) Log fold change for on-pump 0hr time point with respect to sternotomy. (C) Shows 24hr log fold change with respect to sternotomy. Case numbers for patients in G1 (insignificant vasoplegia) are shown in green and those for patients in G2 (significant vasoplegia) are shown in red. The status of individual patients as diabetic (d), hypertensive (h) or having renal failure (r) is also indicated together with each bar. (D), (E), (F) show machine learning groupings for G1 and G2 using logistic regression and (G), (H), (I) show the same based on gradient boosting. Correctly classified patients are shown, by case number, in green boxes, and misclassified patients in red boxes. Corresponding p-values are shown.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242375.g005

Patients were then classified using logistic regression (Fig 5D–5F) and gradient boosting (Fig 5G–5I) algorithms on the above-mentioned log fold change values for the CD34+ marker. Grouping on each patient were made by leaving that patient out and training on other patients. Gradient boosting outperformed logistic regression in general, with both methods mis-classifying only two patients in the best case (Fig 5D and 5G). The performance of the classifiers was significant (p<0.05) for Fig 5D, 5E, 5G and 5H (0 hour compared to baselines B1 and B2).

Power analysis.

For each time point, we calculated the sample means and standard deviations separately for the two groups (I = non-vasoplegic or insignificantly vasoplegic; II = vasoplegic), and the pooled standard deviation. We calculated the effect size given as Cohen's d = (difference in means)/(pooled standard deviation). We calculated the statistical power for the observed effect size, as well as for effect sizes of 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0, at a desired significance of 0.05 for 8 non-vasoplegic and 7 vasoplegic patients, by simulating 100 data sets per effect size. For the 0-hour vs induction and 0 hour vs sternotomy time points, we find a large effect size and a moderately high statistical power, as shown in Table 3 below.

thumbnail
Download:
Table 3. Power analysis.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242375.t003

Propensity matching.

Given the small dataset, a thorough propensity matching on all parameters is unfeasible. Instead, a Euroscore II value was calculated for each patient based on their clinical parameters, and these were matched. Out of eight non-vasoplegic and seven vasoplegic patients, we found a subset of five good matches per group, as given in the supplementary table (S1 Table) and supplementary figure (S2 Fig). Using these matched subsets of 5 vs 5 patients led to comparably good predictions as with the full set. Since the Euroscore II is comparable between the two groups, there is no significance difference in the risk profiles between the two groups.

4. Discussion

In this study, we report differences in time dependent changes in levels of circulating progenitors and EPCs in CPB surgery in individuals exhibiting clinically significant and insignificant vasoplegia. We have demonstrated (as in Fig 3A and 3B) that CD34+ cells are the first one to respond to CPB, followed by CD133+, HSCs, EPCs and VEGFR2+ cells. This part of the study supports the conclusions of previous studies investigating the mobilization of progenitor cells in circulation during and after CPB. Our findings on CD34+ and HSCs are comparable with previous studies done by Dotsenko et al and Scheubel et al [28,29]. They reported an increase in CD34+ cell counts at the end of surgery which contained to remain elevated 24 hours post-operation. Similarly, the rise in circulating HSCs peaks at 6 hours post-operatively and decreases after 24 hours. Increased EPCs and VEGFR2+ levels at the end of the surgery have also been reported in previous studies [30–32]. Notably, the kinetics of progenitor cells and lactate levels follow a trend similar to that seen in Figs 2B, 3A and 3B, which suggests hypoxia driven mobilization of progenitor cells [33].

To the best of our knowledge this study represents the first attempt to associate changes in numbers of progenitors with the severity of vasoplegia. We have shown that individuals who do not develop clinically significant vasoplegia after surgery (G1) showed significant early increase in the number of CD34+ and HSCs. This rise was not observed in the individuals who developed significant vasoplegia (G2). Similarly, a blunted response of EPCs was observed in G2 individuals in comparison to G1.

Upon categorization based on the severity of vasoplegia, the early response of CD34+ and HSC counts in G1, as seen in Fig 4A and 4B, might indicate the body's attempt to limit vascular damage by inducing repair mechanism against the insult caused due to CPB. This early response is compromised in G2 individuals. Prior studies have claimed that CD34+ cells promote therapeutic angiogenesis through paracrine signaling in response to myocardial ischemia and have the potential to ensure engraftment of transplanted cells [34]. Recently, Cogle et al have shown that the increase in the number of CD34+ cells in bone marrow is directly associated with improved functional outcomes after acute myocardial infarction (AMI) in the Timing in Myocardial Infarction Evaluation (TIME) and Late TIME clinical trials [35]. In another study, Fadini et al have found that CD34+ cells have a strong negative correlation with cardiovascular risk [36]. Similarly, HSCs are known to promote neovascularization on tissue engineered construct and have shown significant correlation with autologous white cell count and engraftment kinetics in myeloma patients [37,38]. Based on these studies and our observations, we speculate that endothelial injury caused by CPB, if not accompanied by an early mobilization of sufficient circulating progenitor cells, may result in impaired vascular repair, thereby contributing to the severity of vasoplegia. However, the reason for delayed response of CD34+ and HSCs cells in G2 individuals is still unknown. Given the variability of vasoplegia even among patients within different risk groups, it would be reasonable to assume that pre-operative profiles may influence the ability to mobilize circulating progenitors and HSCs.

We also observed a depression in EPC count in G2 patients as seen in Fig 4C. The reason for decreased circulating counts of EPCs in G2 could be due to compromised migration, homing and reparative potential of these cells as shown by Ruel et al. They demonstrated that the migratory effect of EPC was compromised in on-pump CPB patients [32]. Further, Lei Du et al have reported that EPCs start homing to the injured site after 4 hours from the end of the surgery, reporting a drop in the counts of circulating EPCs after 4 hours accompanied by a corresponding increase in their numbers in lung and kidney tissues [39].

To support our findings, we employed machine learning techniques to evaluate our categorization of groups G1 and G2 with respect to the CD34+ marker. We found that the log fold change values of CD34+ markers (as seen in Fig 5A–5C) reflected our findings in terms of an increasing trend in G1 and decreasing trend in G2. Among the algorithms we utilized, namely logistic regression and gradient boosting, we found that gradient boosting performed better in classifying patients into G1 and G2 as seen in Fig 5G–5I. We found that in most patients, the clinical classification agreed with the grouping from gradient boosting. However certain patients, namely patients 6, 8 and 9 in our study, were frequently misclassified. Of these, patient 9 had Pre-CPB renal failure, while patients 6 and 8 had borderline levels of vasoplegia as indicated by norepinephrine dosage. While these results are promising, a study on a larger cohort would enable us to refine our predictive methods for better understanding.

In summary, this pilot study shows that a distinctive pattern of EPC response characterizes patients likely to develop clinically significant vasoplegia. Further studies will help clarify the profile and the use of the EPC response as a biomarker to dictate the threshold to start pressors (or low dose steroids).

Study limitations

There are certain limitations of the current study. For instance, due to small sample size, certain observations did not reach statistical significance. The other major limitation of the study is the non-availability of the blood sample beyond 24 hours. This limited us to observations of the kinetics of progenitor cells only up to 24 hours. Additionally, we did not measure the levels of secretory endothelial markers during perioperative time points to assess endothelial damage. Further studies with large cohorts tracking the changes both between and within risk stratified groups undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass will be needed to determine if a particular response profile could be used to predict the occurrence of significant vasoplegia.

Supporting information

S1 Fig. Gating strategy applied for whole blood.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242375.s001

(TIF)

S2 Fig. Propensity matched subgroups of 5 patients under each group (Group I and Group II).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242375.s002

(TIF)

S1 Table. Propensity matching.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242375.s003

(TIF)

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge The Medical Team (Surgeons, Operation Theatre and ICU staff), Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Apollo Hospitals, Chennai for coordination in sample collection. We acknowledge Mr. Emmanuel, Senior Perfusionist for his technical assistance.

References

  1. 1. Levin MA, Lin HM, Castillo JG, Adams DH, Reich DL, Fischer GW. Early on-cardiopulmonary bypass hypotension and other factors associated with vasoplegic syndrome. Circulation. 2009;120: 1664–1671. pmid:19822810
  2. 2. Omar S, Zedan A, Nugent K. Cardiac vasoplegia syndrome: pathophysiology, risk factors and treatment. Am J Med Sci. 2015;349: 80–88. pmid:25247756
  3. 3. Kortekaas KA, Lindeman JHN, Reinders MEJ, Palmen M, Klautz RJM, De Groot PG, et al. Pre-existing endothelial cell activation predicts vasoplegia after mitral valve surgery. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg. 2013;17: 523–530. pmid:23736659
  4. 4. Brettner F, Chappell D, Schwartz L, Lukasz A, Kümpers P, Becker BF, et al. Vascular Endothelial Dysfunction during Cardiac Surgery: On-Pump versus Off-Pump Coronary Surgery. Eur Surg Res. 2017;58: 354–368. pmid:29073603
  5. 5. Schmid FX, Floerchinger B, Vudattu NK, Eissner G, Haubitz M, Holler E, et al. Direct evidence of endothelial injury during cardiopulmonay bypass by demonstration of circulating endothelial cells. Perfusion. 2006;21: 133–137. pmid:16817285
  6. 6. Hilbert T, Duerr GD, Hamiko M, Frede S, Rogers L, Baumgarten G, et al. Endothelial permeability following coronary artery bypass grafting: an observational study on the possible role of angiopoietin imbalance. Crit Care. 2016; 1–13. pmid:26728475
  7. 7. Jongman RM, Van Klarenbosch J, Molema G, Zijlstra JG, De Vries AJ, Van Meurs M, et al. Angiopoietin/Tie2 dysbalance is associated with acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery assisted by cardiopulmonary bypass. PLoS One. 2015;10: 1–12. pmid:26309217
  8. 8. Koning NJ, Overmars MAH, Van Den Brom CE, Van Bezu J, Simon LE, Vonk ABA, et al. Endothelial hyperpermeability after cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass as assessed using an in vitro bioassay for endothelial barrier function. Br J Anaesth. 2016;116: 223–232. pmid:26787791
  9. 9. Urbich C, Dimmeler S. Endothelial progenitor cells: Characterization and role in vascular biology. Circ Res. 2004;95: 343–353. pmid:15321944
  10. 10. Grisar JC, Haddad F, Gomari FA, Wu JC. Endothelial progenitor cells in cardiovascular disease and chronic inflammation: from biomarker to therapeutic agent. October. 2012;5: 731–744. Endothelial. pmid:22103609
  11. 11. Schmidt-Lucke C, Rössig L, Fichtlscherer S, Vasa M, Britten M, Kämper U, et al. Reduced number of circulating endothelial progenitor cells predicts future cardiovascular events: Proof of concept for the clinical importance of endogenous vascular repair. Circulation. 2005;111: 2981–2987. pmid:15927972
  12. 12. Chan JL, Kobashigawa JA, Aintablian TL, Dimbil SJ, Perry PA, Patel JK, et al. Characterizing Predictors and Severity of Vasoplegia Syndrome After Heart Transplantation. Ann Thorac Surg. 2018;105: 770–777. pmid:29289367
  13. 13. Lambden S, Creagh-brown BC, Hunt J, Summers C, Forni LG. Definitions and pathophysiology of vasoplegic shock. 2018; 1–8. pmid:29980217
  14. 14. Distler JHW, Allanore Y, Avouac J, Giacomelli R, Guiducci S, Moritz F, et al. EULAR Scleroderma Trials and Research group statement and recommendations on endothelial precursor cells. Ann Rheum Dis. 2009;68: 163–168. pmid:18653485
  15. 15. Buitinck L. API design for machine learning software: experiences from the scikit-learn project. Proc ECML PKDD Work Lang Data Min Mach Learn. 2013; 108–122.
  16. 16. JH F. Greedy function approximation: a gradient boosting machine. Ann Stat. 2001; 1189–1232.
  17. 17. T C. XGBoost: A Scalable Tree Boosting System. Proc 22nd ACM SIGKDD Int Conf Knowl Discov Data Min. 2016; 785–794.
  18. 18. Welbourn N, Melrose DG, Moss DW. Changes in serum enzyme levels accompanying cardiac surgery with extracorporeal circulation. J Clin Pathol. 1966;19: 220–232. pmid:5937606
  19. 19. Gomes WJ, Carvalho AC, Palma JH, Teles CA, Branco JN, Silas MG, et al. Vasoplegic syndrome after open heart surgery. J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino). 1998;39: 619–623. pmid:9833722
  20. 20. Grist G, Whittaker C, Merrigan K, Fenton J, Worrall E, O’Brien J, et al. The correlation of fluid balance changes during cardiopulmonary bypass to mortality in pediatric and congenital heart surgery patients. J Extra Corpor Technol. 2011;43: 215–226. pmid:22416601
  21. 21. Hirleman E, Larson DF. Cardiopulmonary bypass and edema: physiology and pathophysiology. Perfusion. 2008;23: 311–322. pmid:19454559
  22. 22. Bellomo R, Raman J, Ronco C. Intensive care unit management of the critically ill patient with fluid overload after open heart surgery. Cardiology. 2001;96: 169–176. pmid:11805383
  23. 23. Roques F, Nashef SA, Michel P, Gauducheau E, de Vincentiis C, Baudet E, et al. Risk factors and outcome in European cardiac surgery: analysis of the EuroSCORE multinational database of 19030 patients. Eur J cardio-thoracic Surg Off J Eur Assoc Cardio-thoracic Surg. 1999;15: 813–816. pmid:10431864
  24. 24. Roques F, Michel P, Goldstone AR, Nashef SAM. The logistic EuroSCORE. European heart journal. England; 2003. pp. 881–882. pmid:12727160
  25. 25. Knaus WA, Draper EA, Wagner DP, Zimmerman JE. APACHE II: a severity of disease classification system. Crit Care Med. 1985;13: 818–829. pmid:3928249
  26. 26. Wong DT, Knaus WA. Predicting outcome in critical care: the current status of the APACHE prognostic scoring system. Can J Anaesth. 1991;38: 374–383. pmid:2036699
  27. 27. Mei YQ, Ji Q, Liu H, Wang X, Feng J, Long C, et al. Study on the relationship of APACHE III and levels of cytokines in patients with systemic inflammatory response syndrome after coronary artery bypass grafting. Biol Pharm Bull. 2007;30: 410–414. pmid:17329829
  28. 28. Dotsenko O, Xiao Q, Xu Q, Jahangiri M. Bone marrow resident and circulating progenitor cells in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg. 2010;90: 1944–1951. pmid:21095342
  29. 29. Scheubel RJ, Zorn H, Silber R, Kuss O, Morawietz H, Holtz J, et al. Age-Dependent Depression in Circulating Endothelial Progenitor Cells in Patients Undergoing Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42: 2073–2080. pmid:14680729
  30. 30. Gill M, Dias S, Hattori K, Rivera ML, Hicklin D, Witte L, et al. Vascular trauma induces rapid but transient mobilization of VEGFR2+ AC133+ endothelial precursor cells. Circ Res. 2001;88: 167–174. pmid:11157668
  31. 31. Roberts N, Xiao Q, Weir G, Xu Q, Jahangiri M. Endothelial Progenitor Cells are Mobilized After Cardiac Surgery. Ann Thorac Surg. 2007;83: 598–605. pmid:17257994
  32. 32. Ruel M, Suuronen EJ, Song J, Kapila V, Gunning D, Waghray G, et al. Effects of off-pump versus on-pump coronary artery bypass grafting on function and viability of circulating endothelial progenitor cells. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2005;130: 633–639. pmid:16153906
  33. 33. Schröder K, Kohnen A, Aicher A, Liehn EA, Büchse T, Stein S, et al. NADPH oxidase Nox2 is required for hypoxia-induced mobilization of endothelial progenitor cells. Circ Res. 2009;105: 537–544. pmid:19679834
  34. 34. Mackie AR, Losordo DW. CD34-positive stem cells: in the treatment of heart and vascular disease in human beings. Texas Hear Inst J. 2011;38: 474–485. pmid:22163120
  35. 35. Cogle CR, Wise E, Meacham AM, Zierold C, Traverse JH, Henry TD, et al. Detailed analysis of bone marrow from patients with ischemic heart disease and left ventricular dysfunction BM CD34, CD11b, and clonogenic capacity as biomarkers for clinical outcomes. Circ Res. 2014;115: 867–874. pmid:25136078
  36. 36. Fadini GP, de Kreutzenberg SV, Coracina A, Baesso I, Agostini C, Tiengo A, et al. Circulating CD34+ cells, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular risk. Eur Heart J. 2006;27: 2247–2255. pmid:16912055
  37. 37. Herrmann M, Binder A, Menzel U, Zeiter S, Alini M, Verrier S. CD34/CD133 enriched bone marrow progenitor cells promote neovascularization of tissue engineered constructs in vivo. Stem Cell Res. 2014;13: 465–477. pmid:25460607
  38. 38. Hicks C, Wong R, Manoharan A, Kwan YL. Viable CD34+/CD133+ blood progenitor cell dose as a predictor of haematopoietic engraftment in multiple myeloma patients undergoing autologous peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. Ann Hematol. 2007;86: 591–598. pmid:17492259
  39. 39. Du L, Meng W-T, Zhang Y-J, Zhang J, Zhou J, Yu J, et al. Endothelial Progenitor Cell Homing Decreases Postoperative Complications in Patients Undergoing Cardiac Surgery with Cardiopulmonary Bypass. J Anesth Perioper Med. 2014;1: 15–24.