http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1634-2331
Figures
Abstract
We have characterized the complete genome of a novel circular double-stranded DNA virus, tentatively named Dioscorea nummularia-associated virus (DNUaV), infecting Dioscorea nummularia originating from Samoa. The genome of DNUaV comprised 8139 bp and contained four putative open reading frames (ORFs). ORFs 1 and 2 had no identifiable conserved domains, while ORF 3 had conserved motifs typical of viruses within the family Caulimoviridae including coat protein, movement protein, aspartic protease, reverse transcriptase and ribonuclease H. A transactivator domain, similar to that present in members of several caulimoviridae genera, was also identified in the putative ORF 4. The genome size, organization, and presence of conserved amino acid domains are similar to other viruses in the family Caulimoviridae. However, based on nucleotide sequence similarity and phylogenetic analysis, DNUaV appears to be a distinct novel member of the family and may represent a new genus.
Citation: Sukal AC, Kidanemariam DB, Dale JL, Harding RM, James AP (2018) Characterization of a novel member of the family Caulimoviridae infecting Dioscorea nummularia in the Pacific, which may represent a new genus of dsDNA plant viruses. PLoS ONE 13(9): e0203038. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203038
Editor: Hanu R. Pappu, Washington State University, UNITED STATES
Received: March 23, 2018; Accepted: August 14, 2018; Published: September 12, 2018
Copyright: © 2018 Sukal et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Data Availability: The GenBank accession number for the complete genome sequence of DNUaV described in this paper is MG944237.
Funding: This research was supported through the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR)-funded project PC/2010/065. AS is a John Allwright Fellowship recipient.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Introduction
Yams (Dioscorea spp.) are ranked as the fourth most important root crop by production after potato, cassava and sweet potato. They provide a staple food source for millions of people in Africa, the Caribbean, South America, Asia and the Pacific [1] while wild yams provide a valuable food source in times of famine. Yam production is highest in West Africa, which accounts for 95% of the world’s total production [2]. Although most of the production occurs in the African region, predominated by Dioscorea rotundata-cayenensis, yam is of importance in South Pacific countries where D. alata and D. esculenta are the dominant species [3] with some scattered cultivation of D. rotundata, D. bulbifera, D. nummularia, D. transversa and D. trifida throughout the region.
Yam cultivation and improvement in the Pacific faces many agronomical challenges including yield losses due to pests and diseases [4,5]. To help address these issues, as well as improve food security and facilitate commercial agricultural opportunities in the Pacific region, access to germplasm from the Pacific and other regions (such as Africa) is needed for possible exploitation. An important collection of Pacific yam germplasm is conserved in tissue culture at the Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees (CePaCT) of the Pacific Community (SPC), Suva, Fiji. This collection, together with yam germplasm from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in West Africa, could hold the key to addressing the problems faced with yam cultivation in the Pacific. However, like many other vegetatively propagated crops such as sugarcane, banana, cassava, aroids and sweet potato, yams are prone to virus infection and accumulation. Therefore, the identification of viruses infecting the crop and the development of reliable diagnostic tests is critical to facilitate the safe exchange and utilization of yam germplasm.
Viruses belonging to the families Alphaflexiviridae (genus Potexvirus), Betaflexiviridae (genus Carlavirus), Bromoviridae (genus Cucumovirus), Caulimoviridae (genus Badnavirus), Potyviridae (genus Macluravirus and Potyvirus), Secoviridae (genus Comovirus and Fabavirus) and Tombusviridae (genus Aureusvirus) are known to infect yams [6,7]. Of these, viruses belonging to the family Caulimoviridae remain the least studied and the most difficult to diagnose due to their significant genetic variability and, in some cases, the presence of integrated viral sequences in the host genome [8–10].
The family Caulimoviridae consists of eight genera of reverse transcribing, double-stranded DNA (dsDNA)-containing plant viruses, which are primarily distinguished from each other based on particle morphology and genome organization [11,12]. Six of the genera, namely Caulimovirus, Cavemovirus, Petuvirus, Rosadnavirus, Soymovirus and Solendovirus have isometric virions that are 52 nm in diameter, while two genera, Badnavirus and Tungrovirus, have bacilliform virions with dimensions of 30 x 130 to 150 nm [11,13]. All family members have a genome size between 7.2 to 9.2 kb with the coding capacity on the plus-strand. To date, only species belonging to the genus Badnavirus have been identified from yams, namely Dioscorea bacilliform alata virus (DBALV), DBALV2, Dioscorea bacilliform esculenta virus (DBESV), Dioscorea bacilliform rotundata virus 1 (DBRTV1), DBRTV2, DBRTV3, Dioscorea bacilliform sansibarensis virus (DBSNV) and Dioscorea bacilliform trifida virus (DBTRV) [9,14–18]. In addition to these full-length viral sequences, a large number of partial reverse transcriptase (RT)-ribonuclease H (RNase H) sequences which cluster within numerous different monophyletic groups have also been PCR-amplified from yam germplasm [3,9,19–22]. While the majority of these groups cluster within the genus Badnavirus, several groups do not cluster with any recognized genera within the family Caulimoviridae [3,21]. Whether these sequences are derived from episomal or integrated viral sequences or from another source such as retrotransposons is unknown since they were generated by PCR.
In 2014, a project was initiated to characterize the diversity of badnaviruses infecting yams in the Pacific region. In this paper, we report the identification of a putative new member of the family Caulimoviridae from yam, tentatively named Dioscorea nummularia-associated virus (DNUaV). The genome properties and organization of DNUaV are described and its relationship to other members of the family Caulimoviridae is discussed.
Materials and methods
Plant material and nucleic acid extraction
CePaCT maintains an in vitro collection of yams (278 accessions) which is comprised of seven different species: D. alata (n = 193), D. rotundata (n = 32), D. esculenta (n = 41), D. bulbifera (n = 8), D. nummularia (n = 2), D. transversa (n = 1) and D. trifida (n = 1) originating from Africa (obtained from IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria), Papua New Guinea (PNG), Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), Samoa and Tonga. Following screenhouse acclimatization for three months leaf samples from 173 plants representative of the collection were used in this study. Total nucleic acid (TNA) was extracted using a CTAB protocol [23] from approximately 100 mg of fresh leaf tissue. The purified TNA was treated with RNase A (1 μg/μl) and the concentration adjusted to 500 ng/μl with sterile nuclease-free water.
RCA and sequencing
RCA was done essentially as described previously [24]. Briefly, 1 μl of TNA extract was used as template in RCA using the TempliPhi™ 100 Amplification Kit (GE Healthcare, UK) with the addition of 1 μl of 10 mM 3’-exonuclease-protected degenerate badnavirus primers BadnaFP/RP [25] to bias amplification towards badnavirus DNA.
RCA products were independently digested with EcoRI, KpnI, SphI and StuI restriction endonucleases which were selected following in silico restriction analysis of published yam badnavirus genome sequences, or based on experimental experience, to generate useful restriction profiles. Digested RCA products were electrophoresed through 1% agarose gels at 100 V for 1 h. Restriction fragments of approximately full-length genome size (7–8 kb) were excised and ligated into appropriately digested and de-phosphorylated pUC19. Plasmids were first screened via restriction analysis to ensure desired inserts were present, then subjected to Sanger sequencing using either universal M13 primers or BadnaFP/RP primers. The resulting sequences were used to query the National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) database (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) with the BLASTn and BLASTx search functions. Where BLAST analysis yielded a match to viral sequences, primer walking using sequence-specific primers was used to generate full-length sequences in both directions.
To confirm the sequences spanning putative restriction sites, PCR was carried out using sequence-specific primers flanking the region. PCR mixes consisted of 10 μl of 2x GoTaq Green Master Mix (Promega, USA), 5 ρmol of each sequence-specific primer and 1 μl of DNA extract (diluted to ~50 ng/μl) in a final volume of 20 μl. PCR cycling conditions were as follows: initial denaturation at 94°C for 2 min followed by 35 cycles of 94°C for 20 s, 50°C for 30 s and 72°C for 2 min, with a final extension at 72°C for 10 min. Amplicons were cloned into pGEM®-T Easy (Promega, USA) and sequenced with primers M13F/R as described previously.
Putative full-length sequences were assembled using Geneious v11.0.5 [26]. SnapGene® software (www.snapgene.com; GSL Biotech) and ORFfinder (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/orffinder/) were used to predict putative ORFs on the plus-strand of the assembled full-length sequences. InterPro software was used to scan protein databases for conserved domains [27], while BLASTn and BLASTx were used to search for sequence homologies in GenBank.
Sequence comparisons and phylogenetic analyses
Pairwise sequence comparison (PASC) was done using sequences corresponding to amino acid residues L269-R672 of the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) polymerase (pol) gene. This region includes the conserved motifs of the RT- and RNase H-coding regions [28] and is currently used for the demarcation of species in the family Caulimoviridae [12]. Nucleotide or translated amino acid sequences were aligned using ClustalW alignment in MEGA7 [29].
Phylogenetic analyses were done using the nucleotide sequences of either the 529 bp RT/RNase H-coding region delineated by the BadnaFP/RP primer binding sites or the pol gene sequences described above. Sequences were aligned using ClustalW and phylogenetic trees were constructed using the maximum-likelihood method (Kimura-2-parameter model) in MEGA7 with 1000 bootstrap replication.
Viral DNA detection
Specific primers DNUaV-ORF4-FP1 (5'-CCGGGTTGCCAGTACAGAAT-3') and DNUaV-ORF4-RP1 (5'-CGTGAAGCACCCAAACCTTG-3') were designed following sequence analysis to amplify a 450 bp region of the putative ORF 4 sequence. PCR was carried out using GoTaq Green essentially as described previously using 57°C as the annealing temperature. Amplicons were cloned and sequenced as described earlier.
Results
Identification of DNUaV
Of the 173 samples analyzed, none of which showed symptoms, 35 yielded restriction profiles indicative of the presence of badnaviruses. Restriction analysis of RCA products derived from two Samoan D. nummularia accessions (DN/WSM-01 and DN/WSM-02) using SphI and StuI, resulted in putative full-length products (~8 kb), while KpnI gave no digest products and digestion using EcoRI resulted in a number of products smaller than 3.5 kb. These profiles were inconsistent with those expected for known yam-infecting badnaviruses based on analysis of full-length sequences available in GenBank. Therefore, the putative full-length SphI digested fragments were cloned and sequenced. Sequences originating from the termini of the ~8 kb SphI fragments from both samples showed no nucleotide similarity with published viral sequences. However, BLASTx analysis revealed that the putative amino acid sequence from one end of the cloned fragments had low (32%) similarity to the ORF 1 protein of the badnavirus, cacao yellow vein-banding virus (CYVBV), and 31% similarity to the ORF 1 protein of the tungrovirus, rice tungro bacilliform virus. Sequencing of the cloned fragments was subsequently carried out using the degenerate badnavirus primers BadnaFP/RP. Sequences were only obtained using primer BadnaFP, with BLASTn analysis revealing 73–75% identity with two partial RT/RNase H-coding sequences of a Dioscorea bacilliform virus derived from D. nummularia (GenBank accession numbers AM072692 and AM421696). Since the sequences of the two 8 kb-SphI clones from isolates DN/WSM-01 and DN/WSM-02 showed 99% nucleotide similarity, the complete genomic sequence of only one isolate, DN/WSM-01, was determined. This sequence was obtained from three independent clones using primer walking, and the presence of the single SphI restriction site was confirmed through additional PCR analysis and sequencing.
Genome organization, sequence and phylogenetic analysis
The complete genomic sequence of the virus isolate derived from yam accession DN/WSM-01 was 8139 bp in length and was deposited in GenBank under the accession number MG944237. Consistent with the RFLP patterns observed, the genome contained 5 EcoRI sites, single SphI and StuI sites, and no KpnI site.
The genome of isolate DN/WSM-01 contained four putative ORFs which comprised 450 nt (ORF 1), 384 nt (ORF 2), 4737 nt (ORF 3) and 1371 nt (ORF 4) (Fig 1). ORFs 1 and 2, and 2 and 3 overlapped, whereas ORFs 3 and 4 were separated by one nucleotide. Whereas ORFs 1 and 2 had overlapping stop/start codons (atga), the putative start codon of ORF 3 was located 47 nucleotides 5' of the ORF 2 stop codon (Fig 1). ORF 2 was in a -1 translational reading frame relative to ORF 1, while ORF 3 was in a +1 translational reading frame relative to ORF 2. The genome contained one large intergenic region (IR), between ORF 4 and ORF 1 which comprised 1247 nt and contained a putative tRNAmet binding site (5'-TGGTATCAGAGCAATGGT-3') with 88% nucleotide similarity to the plant tRNAmet consensus sequence (3'-ACCAUAGUCUCGGUCCAA-5'), which has been described as the priming site for reverse transcription [30]. This was designated as the origin of the circular genome, consistent with the convention used for other caulimoviridae members. A TATA-box (TATATAA7944-7950) and polyadenylation signal (AAAAAATAA7981-7989), analogous to the 35S promotor of CaMV, were also identified in the region 5' of the tRNAmet site.
Large arrows represent the putative ORFs. Conserved protein domains are shown: dark blue = movement protein (MP) domain corresponding to M1-E327 of CaMV ORF 2 protein; green = the putative coat protein (CP) domain corresponding to L261–N429 of the CaMV ORF 4 protein; black = zinc finger (Zn); red = pepsin-like aspartic protease (AP); orange = reverse transcriptase (RT); purple = RNase H (RH); light blue = transactivator (TAV) domain. The tRNAmet binding site (tRNAmet) and regulatory sequences including TATA box (TATA) and polyadenylation signal (PolyA) are also shown. The relative position of restriction sites based on the complete genome sequence are shown above the genome.
Analysis of the translated ORF sequences failed to identify any conserved domains in ORFs 1 and 2. In contrast, comparative sequence analysis of ORF 3 revealed several functional domains shared by all members of the family Caulimoviridae including aspartic protease (Ala933-Ile1045, IPR021109), zinc finger (Cys703-Cys708, IPR001878), RT (Lys1187-Ile1348, IPR000477) and RNase H domains (Ser1469-Ala1574, IPR002156). In addition, a conserved movement protein (MP) domain corresponding to M1-E327 of CaMV ORF 2 protein, and a coat protein (CP) domain corresponding to L261–N429 of the CaMV ORF 4 protein, were also identified. A transactivator (TAV) domain (Tyr80-Thr122, pfam01693), similar to that present in ORF 6 of caulimoviruses and soymoviruses, was identified in the putative ORF 4 sequence (Figs 1 and 2A–2E).
The type member for each genus within the family Caulimoviridae used for comparison is as follows: Caulimovirus—cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV; V00141), Badnavirus—Commelina yellow mottle virus (ComYMV; X52938), Cavemovirus—cassava vein mosaic virus (CsVMV; U59751), Petuvirus—Petunia vein clearing virus (PVCV; U95208), Tungrovirus—rice tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV; NC001914), Rosadnavirus—rose yellow vein virus (RYVV; JX028536), Soymovirus—soybean chlorotic mottle virus (X15828), Solendovirus—tobacco vein clearing virus (TVCV; AF190123). Identical (asterisk/bold font), conserved (colon) and weakly conserved (dot) residues among the members of the family are indicated.
When the full-length genome sequence of isolate DN/WSM-01 was used for BLAST analysis with the search restricted to viruses (taxid:10239), the highest nucleotide identity (70%) was to a 263 bp and 186 bp region of the RT domain of two members of the genus Badnavirus, namely DBRTV2 (accession KX008579) and cacao swollen shoot virus (CSSV; accession KX592572.1), respectively. BLAST analysis of the putative protein sequences encoded by ORFs 1–4 of isolate DN/WSM-01 revealed highest similarity with the ORF 1 protein of CYVBV (32%), ORF 2 protein of taro bacilliform virus (32%), ORF 3 polyprotein of fig badnavirus 1 (41%), while ORF 4 had 26% similarity to amino acids 1443 to 1544 of Piper DNA virus 1.
PASC using either nucleotide or translated amino acid sequences of the pol gene revealed an identity of 43 to 58% or 32 to 53%, respectively, between DNUaV and the type species for each genus in the family Caulimoviridae (Table 1). Phylogenetic analysis using partial RT/RNase H-coding sequences showed that DNUaV forms a distinct subgroup outside of the genus Badnavirus, together with several published sequences (GenBank accession numbers KY555561, AM072692 and AM421696) previously reported from yams (Fig 3A). A similar tree topology, with DNUaV clustering separately from recognized caulimoviridae genera, was obtained when pol nucleotide sequences from published full-length sequences were analyzed (Fig 3B).
Bootstrap values (1,000 replicates) are shown above nodes when greater than 70%. (A) Phylogenetic tree constructed using sequences of the RT/RNase H-coding region delineated by the BadnaFP/RP primers (25). This analysis includes badnavirus RT/RNase H-coding sequences identified from yams [3,9,19–22], badnaviruses infecting other crops and the homologous region of other caulimoviridae members (See S1 Table and S2 Table for complete list of sequences used in the analysis). Subgroups representing published yam badnavirus sequences have been collapsed to improve the presentation of the tree, while the badnavirus groups that have representative full genome sequence available are marked with an asterisk (*); (B) Phylogenetic tree using pol gene nucleotide sequences of DNUaV and representative members of family Caulimoviridae (See S2 Table for list of sequences included in the analysis). The pol gene sequences are equivalent to amino acid residues L269-R672 from the translated ORF 5 nucleotide sequence of cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV).
PCR screening for DNUaV
Using primers designed to amplify a 450 bp region of DNUaV ORF 4, the 173 samples used in this study were tested for DNUaV by PCR. The expected size amplicon was only generated from the Samoan D. nummularia samples, DN/WSM-01 and DN/WSM-02. Sequence analysis of the cloned PCR amplicons from the two samples revealed 99% similarity to each other and to the DNUaV ORF4 sequence generated using RCA.
Discussion
In this study, we identified and characterized a novel DNA virus infecting D. nummularia which we have tentatively named Dioscorea nummularia-associated virus (DNUaV). Although the genome size and organization, and the presence of conserved amino acid domains of DNUaV, is typical of other viruses in the family Caulimoviridae, there are several molecular features of the virus that distinguish it from the current genera.
The ICTV uses several criteria to classify members of the family Caulimoviridae. The most common criterion for demarcation of species uses differences in the nucleotide sequence of the pol gene (AP/RT/RNase H-coding region) of more than 20%. Comparisons of the pol gene sequence of DNUaV with other Caulimoviridae showed the highest identity (76%) to a partial sequence of Dioscorea bacilliform virus isolate SB10a_Dn derived from D. nummularia [3]. Based on differences in the nucleotide sequence identity of more than 20%, DNUaV appears to be a novel virus in the family Caulimoviridae.
In addition to nucleotide sequence similarity, distinctions between genera within the family Caulimoviridae are also based on the type of host plant, particle morphology, genome organization and the presence and arrangement of conserved protein-coding motifs. DNUaV encodes four ORFs with the size of ORFs 1–3 consistent with both badnavirus and tungrovirus members, as are the arrangement of the characteristic MP, CP, Zn-finger binding domain and the AP-RT-RNase H-coding regions of ORF 3. The relative positions of ORF 1 and 2 are similar to those of badnaviruses, while ORFs 2 and 3 overlap each other by 47 nt which is also similar to the badnaviruses CSSV, gooseberry vein banding virus, Piper yellow mottle virus and sweet potato pakakuy virus [31–33]. However, unlike those badnaviruses with a fourth ORF which always overlaps with ORF3, ORF4 of DNUaV is separated from ORF 3 by a short intergenic region which is more similar to genome organization of RTBV, the sole member of the genus Tungrovirus. Further, the size of DNUaV ORF 4 is also similar to that of RTBV. Unlike RTBV, however, the DNUaV ORF 4 gene product contains a conserved translation transactivator domain, which is typical of ORF 6 of caulimoviruses and soymoviruses, and which is also present in ORF 4 of cavemoviruses and solendoviruses. However, unlike the DNUaV ORF 4 sequence, the ORF 4 sequences of both cavemoviruses and solendoviruses also includes the conserved coiled-coil motifs characteristic of the virion-associated protein. Clearly, determination of virion morphology and whether infected plants contain inclusion bodies typical of members of the genus Caulimovirus is required before the taxonomic status of DNUaV can be fully resolved. However, based on the sequence information presented, DNUaV appears to be a distinct, novel member of Caulimoviridae.
PASC carried out using pol gene sequences showed 45 to 58% nucleotide or 32 to 53% amino acid sequence identity between DNUaV and the type members of each genus within the family Caulimoviridae (Table 1). This level of nucleotide sequence identity is typical of that between the established genera within the family Caulimoviridae, which ranges from 42 to 64% (Table 1). Further, the level of amino acid sequence identity is similar to the range of 27 to 48% identity between the type members of each genus. Of the eight type members included in the analysis DNUaV shares the highest level of amino acid identity (53%) with ComYMV, the type member of the genus Badnavirus (Table 1), suggesting that DNUaV is most closely related to the badnaviruses. However, phylogenetic analyses using either partial RT/RNase H-coding sequences (Fig 3A) or pol gene sequences (Fig 3B), indicates that DNUaV is basal to, and distinct from, the badnaviruses, forming a distinct clade between the single member of the genus Tungrovirus, RTBV, and the genus Badnavirus. This suggests that DNUaV may belong in a new, distinct genus within the family Caulimoviridae.
Previous studies investigating the occurrence of badnaviruses in yams have reported large numbers of badnavirus partial RT/RNase H-coding (529 bp) sequences generated using the BadnaFP/RP primers [3,9,10,18–22]. Phylogenetic analyses of these sequences identified four distinct sequence groups, namely K12/K13 [3] and T16/T17 [21], which clustered into two monophyletic groups (K12/T16 and K13/T17) outside of the eight currently recognized genera within the family Caulimoviridae. Our phylogenetic analysis revealed that DNUaV clusters with the monophyletic group K12/T16 (Fig 3A). Since the sequences reported in these previous studies were obtained using a PCR-based approach, the authors were unable to confirm their episomal nature and so theorized that the sequence groups could represent either divergent badnaviruses, ancient endogenous pararetrovirus sequences, or possibly new genera within the family Caulimoviridae. The full-length DNUaV sequence presented here provides strong evidence that the sequences in group K12/T16 may also be derived from episomal virus/es infecting yam.
When the yam germplasm collection held at CePaCT was tested for DNUaV using primers designed from DNUaV ORF4, only 2/173 samples tested positive, both of which were D. nummularia from Samoa. Sequencing of the PCR products from the two accessions revealed 99% nucleotide sequence identity to the full-length RCA-derived sequence, indicating that the sequence was conserved in both isolates. These results suggest that DNUaV does not appear to be integrated into the genome of Dioscorea spp. as the only two samples that tested positive with PCR also tested positive using RCA.While this result does not exclude the possibility that DNUaV sequences are either partly or wholly integrated into the genome of the yam species tested, the available evidence suggests the existence of only the episomal form. Sequences with high similarity to DNUaV have previously been identified from D. nummularia originating from the Solomon Islands [3], however, we were unable to obtain yam samples from the Solomon Islands for testing. The distribution of DNUaV in the Pacific needs to be determined as the current sample set included only two D. nummularia accessions, both from Samoa.
This research builds on the work carried out previously [3,17] in characterizing caulimoviridae from yams in the Pacific and is important in confirming the episomal nature of reported sequences. An understanding of the episomal virus diversity infecting yam will enable genebanks to test their genetic resources to ensure safe distribution. The diagnostic protocol described here for detecting DNUaV may be suitable for routine diagnostic screening for DNUaV in yam germplasm collections.
Supporting information
S1 Table. Details of yam partial RT/RNase H-coding sequences used in the phylogenetic analysis of DNUaV.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203038.s001
(XLSX)
S2 Table. Acronyms, GenBank accession numbers and virus names of sequences used for phylogenetic analysis in Fig 3B.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203038.s002
(XLSX)
S1 Dataset. Complete nucleotide sequence of Dioscorea nummularia-associated virus.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203038.s003
(DOCX)
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees (CePaCT) of the Pacific Community (SPC) for making their yam collections available for this project. Authors would also like to thank Dr. Michael Furlong and Dr. Grahame Jackson for their support and advice on this research.
References
- 1.
FAOSTAT. Crop production data [Internet]. [cited 2017 Jul 13]. Available from: http://faostat.fao.org.
- 2.
Mignouna HD, Abang MM, Asiedu R. Genomics of yams, a common source of food and medicine in the tropics. In: Moore PH, Ming R, editors. Genomics of tropical crop plants. Springer, New York; 2008; 549–570.
- 3. Kenyon L, Lebas BSM, Seal SE. Yams (Dioscorea spp.) from the South Pacific Islands contain many novel badnaviruses: implications for international movement of yam germplasm. Arch Virol. 2008;153: 877–889. pmid:18330495
- 4.
SPYN. Yam: cultivar selection for disease resistance and commercial potential in Pacific Islands. CIRAD, Montpellier; 2003.
- 5. Sukal AC, Taylor M, Tuia VS. Viruses and their impact on the utilization of plant genetic resources in the Pacific. Acta Hortic. 2015;1101: 127–132.
- 6.
Kenyon L, Shoyinka SA, Hughes Jd’A, Odu BO. An overview of viruses infecting Dioscorea yams in sub-Saharan Africa. In: Hughes Jd’A, Odu BO, editors. Plant Virology in Sub-Saharan Africa: Proceedings of a conference organized by IITA. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan; 2001: 432–439.
- 7. Menzel W, Thottappilly G, Winter S. Characterization of an isometric virus isolated from yam (Dioscorea rotundata) in Nigeria suggests that it belongs to a new species in the genus Aureusvirus. Arch Virol. 2014;159: 603–606. pmid:24085328
- 8. Bhat A, Hohn T, Selvarajan R. Badnaviruses: The current global scenario. Viruses. 2016;8: 177.
- 9. Bömer M, Turaki AA, Silva G, Kumar PL, Seal SE. A sequence-independent strategy for amplification and characterisation of episomal badnavirus sequences reveals three previously uncharacterised yam badnaviruses. Viruses. 2016;8: 188.
- 10. Seal S, Turaki A, Muller E, Kumar PL, Kenyon L, Filloux D, et al. The prevalence of badnaviruses in West African yams (Dioscorea cayenensis-rotundata) and evidence of endogenous pararetrovirus sequences in their genomes. Virus Res. 2014;186: 144–154. pmid:24457074
- 11.
Geering ADW. Caulimoviridae (Plant Pararetroviruses). In: Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester; 2014. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470015902.a0000746.pub3
- 12.
Geering ADW, Hull R. Family Caulimoviridae. In: King AMQ, Adams MJ, Carstens EB, Lefkowitz EJ, editors. Virus Taxonomy: Ninth report of the international committee on taxonomy of viruses. Elsevier Academic Press, Amsterdam; 2012: 429–443.
- 13. Hull R. Molecular biology of rice tungro viruses. Annu Rev Phytopathol. 1996;34: 275–297. pmid:15012544
- 14. Bömer M, Rathnayake AI, Visendi P, Silva G, Seal SE. Complete genome sequence of a new member of the genus Badnavirus, dioscorea bacilliform RT virus 3, reveals the first evidence of recombination in yam badnaviruses. Arch Virol. 2017;163: 533–538. pmid:29134336
- 15. Briddon RW, Phillips S, Brunt A, Hull R. Analysis of the sequence of dioscorea alata bacilliform virus; comparison to other members of the badnavirus group. Virus Genes. 1999;18: 277–283. pmid:10456795
- 16. Seal S, Muller E. Molecular analysis of a full-length sequence of a new yam badnavirus from Dioscorea sansibarensis. Arch Virol. 2007;152: 819–825. pmid:17195956
- 17. Sukal A, Kidanemariam D, Dale J, James A, Harding R. Characterization of badnaviruses infecting Dioscorea spp. in the Pacific reveals two putative novel species and the first report of dioscorea bacilliform RT virus 2. Virus Res. 2017;238: 29–34. pmid:28591557
- 18. Umber M, Gomez RM, Gélabale S, Bonheur L, Pavis C, Teycheney PY. The genome sequence of dioscorea bacilliform TR virus, a member of the genus Badnavirus infecting Dioscorea spp., sheds light on the possible function of endogenous dioscorea bacilliform viruses. Arch Virol. 2017;162: 517–521. pmid:27770216
- 19. Bousalem M, Durand O, Scarcelli N, Lebas BSM, Kenyon L, Marchand JL, et al. Dilemmas caused by endogenous pararetroviruses regarding the taxonomy and diagnosis of yam (Dioscorea spp.) badnaviruses: Analyses to support safe germplasm movement. Arch Virol. 2009;154: 297–314. pmid:19190853
- 20. Eni AO, Hughes JDA, Asiedu R, Rey MEC. Sequence diversity among badnavirus isolates infecting yam (Dioscorea spp.) in Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria. Arch Virol. 2008;153: 2263–2272. pmid:19030955
- 21. Turaki AA, Bömer M, Silva G, Kumar PL, Seal SE. PCR-DGGE analysis: Unravelling complex mixtures of badnavirus sequences present in yam germplasm. Viruses. 2017;9: 181.
- 22. Umber M, Filloux D, Muller E, Laboureau N, Galzi S, Roumagnac P, et al. The genome of African yam (Dioscorea cayenensis-rotundata complex) hosts endogenous sequences from four distinct badnavirus species. Mol Plant Pathol. 2014;15: 790–801. pmid:24605894
- 23. Kleinow T, Nischang M, Beck A, Kratzer U, Tanwir F, Preiss W, et al. Three C-terminal phosphorylation sites in the abutilon mosaic virus movement protein affect symptom development and viral DNA accumulation. Virol. 2009;390: 89–101.
- 24. James AP, Geijskes RJ, Dale JL, Harding RM. Development of a novel rolling-circle amplification technique to detect banana streak virus that also discriminates between integrated and episomal virus sequences. Plant Dis. 2011;95: 57–62.
- 25. Yang IC, Hafner GJ, Dale JL, Harding RM. Genomic characterisation of taro bacilliform virus. Arch Virol. 2003;148:937–949. pmid:12721801
- 26. Kearse M, Moir R, Wilson A, Stones-Havas S, Cheung M, Sturrock S, et al. Geneious Basic: An integrated and extendable desktop software platform for the organization and analysis of sequence data. Bioinformatics. 2012;28: 1647–1649. pmid:22543367
- 27. Finn RD, Attwood TK, Babbitt PC, Bateman A, Bork P, Bridge AJ, et al. InterPro in 2017—beyond protein family and domain annotations. Nucleic Acids Res. 2017;45: D190–D199. pmid:27899635
- 28. Geering ADW, Scharaschkin T, Teycheney P- Y. The classification and nomenclature of endogenous viruses of the family Caulimoviridae. Arch Virol. 2010;155: 123–131. pmid:19898772
- 29. Kumar S, Stecher G, Tamura K. MEGA7: Molecular evolutionary genetics analysis version 7.0 for bigger datasets. Mol Biol Evol. 2016;33: 1870–1874. pmid:27004904
- 30. Medberry SL, Lockhart BEL, Olszewski NE. Properties of commelina yellow mottle virus’s complete DNA sequence, genomic discontinuities and transcript suggest that it is a pararetrovirus. Nucleic Acids Res. 1990;18: 5505–5513. pmid:1699203
- 31. Hany U, Adams IP, Glover R, Bhat AI, Boonham N. The complete genome sequence of Piper yellow mottle virus (PYMoV). Arch Virol. 2014;159: 385–388. pmid:24005374
- 32. Kreuze JF, Perez A, Untiveros M, Quispe D, Fuentes S, Barker I, et al. Complete viral genome sequence and discovery of novel viruses by deep sequencing of small RNAs: A generic method for diagnosis, discovery and sequencing of viruses. Virol. 2009;388: 1–7.
- 33. Petrzik K, Přibylová J, Špak J. Molecular analysis of gooseberry vein banding associated virus. Acta Virol. 2012;56: 119–124. pmid:22720701