Mode of Action of the Natural Insecticide, Decaleside Involves Sodium Pump Inhibition

Yallappa Rajashekar; Thimmappa Shivanandappa

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0170836

Abstract

Decalesides are a new class of natural insecticides which are toxic to insects by contact via the tarsal gustatory chemosensilla. The symptoms of their toxicity to insects and the rapid knockdown effect suggest neurotoxic action, but the precise mode of action and the molecular targets for decaleside action are not known. We have presented experimental evidence for the involvement of sodium pump inhibition in the insecticidal action of decaleside in the cockroach and housefly. The knockdown effect of decaleside is concomitant with the in vivo inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase in the head and thorax. The lack of insecticidal action by experimental ablation of tarsi or blocking the tarsal sites with paraffin correlated with lack of inhibition of Na⁺- K⁺ ATPase in vivo. Maltotriose, a trisaccharide, partially rescued the toxic action of decaleside as well as inhibition of the enzyme, suggesting the possible involvement of gustatory sugar receptors. In vitro studies with crude insect enzyme preparation and purified porcine Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase showed that decaleside competitively inhibited the enzyme involving the ATP binding site. Our study shows that the insecticidal action of decaleside via the tarsal gustatory sites is causally linked to the inhibition of sodium pump which represents a unique mode of action. The precise target(s) for decaleside in the tarsal chemosensilla and the pathway linked to inhibition of sodium pump and the insecticidal action remain to be understood.

Citation: Rajashekar Y, Shivanandappa T (2017) Mode of Action of the Natural Insecticide, Decaleside Involves Sodium Pump Inhibition. PLoS ONE 12(1): e0170836. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170836

Editor: Frederic Marion-Poll, AgroParisTech, FRANCE

Received: August 21, 2016; Accepted: January 11, 2017; Published: January 26, 2017

Copyright: © 2017 Rajashekar, Shivanandappa. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

In view of the environmental and ecological concerns, human health hazards, and increasing insect resistance, many insecticides have been banned or replaced by newer chemicals [1]. Mode of action of the major chemical classes of insecticides involves mainly three target sites in the nervous system: acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme of critical importance in the transmission of nerve impulse (organophosphorus and carbamates), voltage-gated sodium channels across the nerve membrane (pyrethoids and DDT), and the acetylcholine receptor (neonicotinoids) [1–5]. Selective insecticides such as juvenile hormone mimics (fenoxycarb and pyriproxyfen), ecdysone agonists and chitin synthesis inhibitors (Diflubenzuron) act on insect- specific targets that disrupt reproduction and development [6–8]. Among the insecticides derived from natural sources, azadirachtin, from the Indian neem tree, is a feeding deterrent and an insect growth regulator that suppresses fecundity, moulting, pupation and adult emergence [9–10]. Compounds that selectively act on the insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (neonicotinoids), such as imidacloprid, acetamiprid and thiomethaxam are among the modern insecticides used in pest management [11–13]. Avermectins, the insecticides of microbial origin, target GABA-gated chloride channels [14–15], whereas, the diamide insecticide acts on the ryanodine receptor [16–17]. Spinosyns, a new class of insecticides derived from actinomycetes, show high selectivity and low mammalian toxicity with eco-friendly behaviour [18–19].

Recent addition to the natural insecticides are decaleside I and II, novel trisaccharides isolated from the roots of Decalepis hamiltonii (Wight and Arn.) that are toxic to several insect species by contact with the tarsal gustatory sites but not toxic by oral or topical application [20–21]. This intriguing nature of the insecticidal action of these natural insecticides seems to involve new, unknown target(s) in insects. The insect toxicity of decaleside in the contact bioassay based on the symptoms and behaviour indicated neurotoxic nature somewhat similar to that of pyrethroids [21]. The knockdown effect and mortality and symptoms suggest that decalesides may act on neural/neuromuscular targets via gustatory chemosensilla [21–22]. In insects, the axons of the gustatory receptor neurons from the chemosensilla directly report to the thoracic-abdominal and subesophageal ganglion as in the case of Drosophila [23–24]. Therefore, we hypothesised that the possible mode of action of decaleside on the chemosensilla may involve interference with the neuronal transmission of nerve impulse that could lead to the knock down effect. The biochemical basis of the insecticidal action of decalesides, however, is not known at present.

Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase, or sodium pump, is a transmembrane ion motive enzyme most important in cellular ion regulation and maintenance of membrane potential by regulating the movement of Na⁺ and K⁺ ions across the cell membrane [25–28] which is coupled to ATP hydrolysis. Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase, a highly conserved heterodimeric protein consisting of alpha and beta subunits with a transmembrane segment and the subunits combine to give tissue specific isoforms of the enzyme [28]. It is a target for natural toxins such as cardenolides from plants and bufodienolides from plants, animals, and palytoxin from marine organisms [29–30]. The natural toxins cardenolides and bufadienolides bind to the alpha subunit interfering with the cellular functions by disrupting the cat ion exchange across the cell membrane [30]. The highly toxic palytoxin, in a unique action, binds to the N-terminal side of the alpha subunit of the sodium pump, converting it to a ion channel resulting in K⁺ efflux, Na⁺ influx and membrane depolarisation [31–35]. Recently, it has been reported that palytoxin isolated from the red alga, Chondria armata was extremely toxic to cockroach when injected [36] suggesting the possibility that Na+, K+ -ATPase could be a potential target for newer insecticides. A preliminary observation in our study we found in vivo inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase in decaleside-treated insects, which led to the present study wherein we present experimental evidence that Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase (sodium pump) is involved in the insecticidal action of decaleside in insects, which leads us to postulate novel mode of action for these unique natural insecticides.

Materials and Methods

Chemicals

The purified enzyme, sodium potassium adenosine triphosphatase (from porcine cerebral cortex), adenosine triphosphate (ATP), bovine serum albumin (BSA) and Ouabain were purchased from Sigma chemical Co., (St. Louis MO, USA). Other chemicals were purchased from Sisco Research Laboratory Mumbai, India. Decaleside I and II were isolated and characterized (purity, 99%) from the roots of Decalepis hamiltonii as reported earlier [21].

Insects

Housefly (Musca domestica) were reared in a mixture of sterilized bran, milk powder and water, and the adults were allowed free access to water and thick paste of condensed milk and milk powder [37]. The German cockroach (Blatella germanica) was reared in plastic tubes with harborages, with dry food (biscuits) and water provided ad libitum [38]. Insect cultures were maintained at 25.0 ± 2.5°C and 70% RH with a photoperiod of 12:12 (L: D).

Insecticidal activity

Knockdown effect, defined as the state of intoxication and partial paralysis with lack of movement which usually precedes death by exposure to decaleside I and II, was investigated in contact bioassays using adults of the cockroach and housefly. A 1 ml solution (in methanol) each of the decalesides containing known concentration of the compounds was applied on Whatman No.1 (9cm) filter paper and placed in a glass Petri dish and the solvent was allowed to evaporate for 10 min under airflow with a fan, followed by the release of 10 adult cockroaches or 20 houseflies into each dish. The control filter paper discs were treated with the solvent only. Methanol as solvent was chosen for the ease of evaporation. Each treatment consisted of four replicates. The knockdown of insects was recorded after 45 min exposure. The dosages ranged from 0.004 to 0.272 mg/cm², and the effective dosages were chosen based on trial experiments. Four replicates were used for each dosage. KD₅₀ (50% knockdown in 24 h exposure) were determined from the dose-response data using probit regression analysis [39].

Dose-response

Decaleside I and II (0.008–0.270 mg/cm²) solutions (1ml) were sprayed on to filter paper and the control groups received only the solvent as described earlier. The solvent was allowed to evaporate for 10 min followed by the release of 10 unsexed adults of B. germanica and M. domestica separately into glass petri dishes (9cm diameter) at 25.0 ± 2.5°C. Four replicates were used for each dosage. Effective dosage for 50% knockdown effect (KD₅₀) (45 min, exposure) was determined from the dose-response data using probit regression analysis [36].

Time-course

Cockroaches or houseflies (10 per replicate) were released into Petri dish containing decaleside treated filter paper at KD₅₀ dose (0.07 mg/cm²). The number of insects knocked-down was recorded for 0–60 min exposure.

In vivo inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase in relation to knockdown effect

Dose-response study: The KD₂₅, KD₅₀, and KD₉₀ doses of decaleside I and II were determined by exposing the insects (cockroach and housefly) for 45 min in contact bioassay. In the case of houseflies, the head and thorax were frozen for the enzyme assay, whereas, for cockroaches, the brain (cerebral ganglia) and the coxal muscle were dissected out and used.

Time-course study: Insects were exposed to the KD₅₀ dose of decalesides in the contact bioassay and removed at various exposure time intervals (15, 30, 45 and 60 min). The tissues of the insects were dissected and assayed as described above.

Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase assay

The tissues were homogenised in 0.1M tris-HCl buffer (pH 7.4), and centrifuged at 10, 000 x g for 15 min at 4°C and the supernatant was used for the assay of Na⁺, K⁺–ATPase [40]. The reaction mixture contained NaCl (0.14M), KCl (14mM), MgCl₂ (3mM), ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid (EDTA, 2mM), to which the enzyme (50μl) was added with or without 1mM ouabain in a final volume of 1ml and pre-incubated at 37°C for 10 min. The reaction was started by adding 50μl of ATP (1.5mM), incubated for 30 min at 37°C and the reaction was stopped by the addition of 0.5ml of ice-cold 10% trichloroacetic acid and centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 10 min and the phosphate content (Pi) in the supernatant was estimated [41]. The enzyme ATPase hydrolyses ATP to ADP and Pi (inorganic phosphate), and the specific activity of Na+, K+-ATPase was calculated as ouabain-inhibitable activity and expressed as Pi (μg)/mg protein.

Tarsi-mediated contact toxicity in relation to Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase inhibition

Requirement of direct contact of decaleside with the tarsi in the legs for the insecticidal action has been experimentally demonstrated by surgical ablation of the tarsi or blocking by molten wax, as reported earlier [21]. In order to test if the tarsi-mediated insecticidal action involves sodium pump inhibition, the activity of Na+, K+-ATPase activity was investigated in relation to the knockdown effect. The experimental procedures have been described earlier [21]. Insects were treated with decaleside by direct application of 1mg aqueous solution with or without surgical ablation, and, wax treatment and the knockdown effect(0–45 min) and inhibition of Na+, K+-ATPase activity were determined.

Effect of hydrolysis of decaleside on the insecticidal activity and Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity

Chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis of decaleside and its effect on insect toxicity has been described earlier [21]. In this study, effect of hydrolysis on in vivo inhibition of Na+, K+-ATPase activity in relation to the knockdown effect was investigated.

Effect of sugars on the insecticidal action of decaleside in relation to Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase inhibition

Since some sugars interfere with the insect toxicity of decaleside, we undertook to study if it involves sodium pump inhibition. The contact bioassay procedures with or without sugars on the toxicity have been described earlier [21]. The activity of Na+, K+ -ATPase was assayed in the treated and control insects as described above.

In vitro inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase

In vitro inhibition of the enzyme, Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase by decalesides in the tissues of houseflies, cockroaches (crude preparation) and the purified enzyme (porcine cerebral cortex) was studied. The enzyme was pre incubated with decaleside I and II (10μm– 1mM) at 37°C for 30 min, followed by the addition of 50μl of ATP (1.5mM), and incubated for 30 min at 37°C. The reaction was stopped by the addition of 1ml of ice-cold 10% trichloroacetic acid and centrifuged. Phosphate content in the supernatant was estimated [41]. The enzyme activity with or without ouabain (1mM) in the reaction mixture was calculated, and the inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase was determined. IC₅₀ were calculated by regression analysis.

Protein content was measured by the method of Lowry et al. [42] using BSA as the standard.

Statistical analysis

The data was analysed using one-way Anova (p < 0.05) using Statplus 2007 software. The data was expressed as means ± SE. Probit analysis was used for calculating KD₅₀ [39].

Results

In vivo inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺–ATPase in relation to insect toxicity

Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase activities in insects exposed to KD₂₅, KD₅₀ and KD₉₀ doses of decaleside I and II was markedly inhibited in a dose-dependent manner in the housefly (head and thorax) (Fig 1A, 1B and 1C) and cockroach (brain and coaxial muscle) (S1A and S1B Fig). The in vivo enzyme inhibition was dose-dependent and correlated with the knockdown effect measured at 45 min of exposure in the contact bioassay.

Download:

Fig 1. Dose-dependent in vivo inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase by decalesides in relation to insecticidal activity in the house fly.

A) % Knockdown effect (n = 4, error bars, s.e.m.). B) Decaleside I (control activity: head = 38.03 μg Pi / mg protein; thorax = 45.8 μg Pi / mg protein) (n = 4, error bars, s.e.m.).C) Decaleside II (control activity: head = 33.15 μg Pi / mg protein; thorax = 45.4 μg Pi / mg protein) (n = 4, error bars, s.e.m.).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170836.g001

Inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase markedly increased with time in insects exposed to KD₅₀ dose of decalesides (Fig 2A, 2B and 2C), and closely correlated with the knockdown effect (S2A and S2B Fig).

Download:

Fig 2. Time-course of in vivo inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase in relation to knockdown of housefly treated with decalesides.

A) % Knockdown effect (n = 4, error bars, s.e.m.). B) Decaleside I (control activity: head = 61.6 μg Pi / mg protein; thorax = 38.6 μg Pi / mg protein) (n = 4, error bars, s.e.m.), and C) Decaleside II (control activity: head = 74.02 μg Pi / mg protein; thorax = 47.82 μg Pi / mg protein) (n = 4, error bars, s.e.m.).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170836.g002

Experiments in which recovery of the insects exposed to KD₅₀ dose of decaleside I and II was monitored for 60–300 min after exposure, showed that recovery from knock-down effect also correlated with the recovery of the enzyme inhibition in vivo (S3A, S3B, S3C, S3D, S4A, S4B, S4C and S4D Figs).

Effect of tarsal ablation and wax treatment

Both tarsal ablation and wax treatment of the tarsi in cockroaches abolished the toxic action of decaleside II as evident by lack of knockdown effect and, there was no in vivo inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase in the brain as well as coxal muscle of cockroaches (Fig 3A and 3B) or wax treatment (Fig 3C and 3D). However, in the respective control groups, toxicity correlated with Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase inhibition.

Download:

Fig 3. Experimental demonstration of the tarsi-mediated knockdown effect of decaleside II in relation to inhibition of Na+, K+ -ATPase activity in the brain of German cockroach.

A, B: Effect of tarsal ablation on the a) Knockdown, b) Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase activity of decaleside II, I) Intact insects, II) Intact insects + decaleside II, III) Tarsii ablated + decaleside II (n = 4, error bars, s.e.m.). C, D: Effect of wax application on c) Knockdown, d) Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase activity in the brain of Blatella germanica exposed to KD₅₀ (0.07 mg/cm²) of decaleside II, by contact bioassay. I) Intact insects, II) wax treated (solvent control), III) Intact insects + decaleside II, IV) wax treated + decaleside II. (n = 4, error bars, s.e.m.).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170836.g003

The effect of direct application on the tarsi

Direct application of decaleside to the tarsi of the first pair of legs induced knockdown effect and caused enzyme inhibition in the cockroaches, whereas wax application on the tarsi protected against the toxicity and, there was no enzyme inhibition (S5A and S5B Fig.).

Effect of hydrolysis

In cockroaches exposed to KD₅₀ concentration of the hydrolyzed (chemical and enzymatic) decaleside II, there was no toxicity as evident from the absence of knock down. Also, there was no inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase in the brain of cockroaches showing correlation with lack of toxicity of the hydrolyzed sample of decaleside II (Fig 4A and 4B).

Download:

Fig 4. Effect of hydrolysis of decaleside II on the knockdown and inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase activity in the brain of Blatella germanica exposed to KD₅₀ (0.07 mg/cm²) of decaleside II by contact bioassay.

A) Knockdown, B) Inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase of activity. I) Control (without hydrolysis), II) Acid hydrolysis, III) β-Galactosidase, IV) α-Glucosidase. (n = 4, error bars, s.e.m.) One-way ANOVA, ***P < 0.001.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170836.g004

Effect of sugars

Experiments in which cockroaches were exposed to decaleside treated paper with or without various sugars, showed that sugars interfered with the toxicity as measured by the knockdown effect, which correlated with the decreased inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase enzyme in the brain in vivo (Fig 5A and 5B). However, treatment with the amino acid (glycine) had no effect on the knockdown effect of decaleside II, which correlated with the lack of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase inhibition (Fig 5A and 5B). Among the sugars, maltotriose, a trisaccharide, was most effective in rescuing the knockdown effect of decaleside II and Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase inhibition. The dose-dependent protective effect of maltotriose against toxicity (knock-down) of decaleside II correlated with inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase in the brain in vivo (Fig 5C and 5D).

Download:

Fig 5. Effect of sugars on the knockdown and inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase activity in the brain of Blatella germanica exposed to KD₅₀ (0.07 mg/cm²) of decaleside II by contact bioassay.

A, B: A) Knockdown, B) Inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase: I. Decaleside II, II. Decaleside II + Glycine, III. Decaleside II + Glucose, IV. Decaleside II + Xylose, V. Decaleside II + Trehalose, VI. Decaleside II + Raffinose, VII. Decaleside II + Melezitose, VIII. decaleside II + Maltotriose in 1:1 equimolar concentration. C, D: Effect (dose-response) of maltotriose on the C) Knockdown, D) Inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase activity: I. Decaleside II, II. Decaleside II + Maltotriose (1:0.1), III. Decaleside II + Maltotriose (1:0.25), IV. Decaleside II + Maltotriose (1:0.5), V. Decaleside II + Maltotriose (1:0.75), VI. Decaleside II + Maltotriose in 1:1 equimolar concentration.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170836.g005

In vitro inhibition

Both decaleside I and II were inhibitors of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase from the tissues of house fly, cockroach and the purified enzyme from the porcine cerebral cortex. The enzyme inhibition was concentration-dependant (Fig 6A, 6B, 6C, 6D and 6E). IC₅₀ determined for the house fly, cockroach, and the purified Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase indicated that decaleside I and II were more potent inhibitors of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase than ouabain (S1 Table).

Download:

Fig 6. In vitro inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase by decaleside I and II in comparison with that of ouabain.

A, B : cockroach brain and thorax, respectively (control activity: head = 29.33 μg Pi / mg protein; thorax = 88.5 μg Pi / mg protein); C, D : house fly head and thorax, respectively (control activity: head = 73.6 μg Pi / mg protein; thorax = 97.42 μg Pi / mg protein ); E: Purified Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase (porcine cerebral cortex, sigma); IC₅₀: Ouabain, 25.4 × 10^-5M; Decaleside I, 10.5 × 10^-5M; Decaleside II, 9.5 × 10^-5M.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170836.g006

Type of inhibition

Kinetic studies showed that the K_m (ATP) shifted with the increased concentration of the inhibitors indicating that the inhibition was competitive as evident from the Lineweaver-Burk plot (S6A, S6B, S6C and S6D Fig). Similar results were found with the purified Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase from porcine cerebral cortex, indicating the competitive type of inhibition (S7A and S7B Fig).

Discussion

Our study has demonstrated that Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase is severely inhibited in insects (both house fly and cockroaches) exposed to decaleside I and II in the contact bioassay. The in vivo inhibition closely correlated (r = >0.9) with the knockdown effect of decaleside I and II in dose-response and time-course studies. The in vivo inhibition was seen in both head and thorax in the case of house fly and the nervous (ganglion) and muscle tissue in cockroaches exposed to decaleside. Further, experimental evidence shows that the inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase requires contact of the insect leg (tarsi) with insecticide treated surface, since no inhibition was seen in insects with tarsi ablated. The same was demonstrated with the application of wax on the tarsi, wherein toxic action of decaleside was abolished. In these experiments in which contact with tarsi for the insecticidal action of decaleside is required, also show concomitant inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase in vivo. The results lead us to conclude that tarsi-mediated insect toxicity of decaleside involves Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase inhibition. Our results are the first report of a natural insecticide (novel trisaccharides) showing Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase as the target in its mode of action. The molecular mechanisms involved in the insecticidal action of decaleside via the gustatory chemosensilla that lead to the knock-down effect, the toxic outcome finally leading to mortality, are not clear at present. Our results show that the insects exposed to decaleside, are initially hyperactive indicating neural excitation, which is followed by knockdown effect, symptoms somewhat similar to that of pyrethoids, suggesting a neurotoxic effect [43–44]. The basic difference, however, is that the decaleside action is mediated by contact with tarsi, unlike that of pyrethoids which act by contact at any point of the body surface of insects. It is known that pyrethroids act by interfering with the voltage gated sodium channels in the neurons which causes hyper excitation leading to knockdown [45–47]. In the case of decaleside action, inhibition of sodium pump is clearly demonstrated in our studies. The following hypothesis is proposed in order to explain the mode of action of decaleside via the gustatory receptors: on contact with the gustatory (sugar) receptors (step I) causes inhibition of sodium pump (step II) which is responsible for the hyperactivity due to increased neuronal excitation caused by excessive Na⁺ concentration (step III) finally leading to knockdown effect and mortality. Electrophysiological evidence is needed to support this hypothesis.

Our study shows that some of the sugars particularly maltotriose, a trisaccharide, interferes with the insecticidal activity of decaleside implying the involvement of sugar receptors in the gustatory chemosensilla which is also concomitant with the Na+, K+ -ATPase inhibition in vivo. Whether specific gustatory receptor neurons mediate the action of decaleside action needs to be investigated.

Our in vitro studies of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase from the insect tissues as well as the purified enzyme indicate that the inhibition is competitive type which suggests that decaleside is interacting with the ATP binding site of the enzyme. It is known that the ATP binding site of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase in the plasma membrane is interior to the cell unlike the ouabain binding site which is to the exterior [25, 48–49]. The difference in the IC₅₀ values for the in vitro inhibition of the insect enzyme versus the purified enzyme could be attributed to the crude enzyme preparation from insect tissue and it is not clear if the binding sites for decaleside on the enzyme are different. Future investigations on insecticidal action of decalesides targeting the gustatory (sugar) receptors and the neurons will open up a new field for scientific inquiry in order to unravel the mechanisms involved in their toxic action in insects. Decalesides, therefore, represent novel natural insecticidal molecules with a unique mode of action.

Supporting Information

S1 Fig. In vivo inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase in the cockroach by decaleside II (contact bioassay).

A: % Knockdown. B: Dose-dependent in vivo inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase in the cockroach by Decaleside II (control activity: Brain = 58.03 μg Pi / mg protein; Coxal muscle = 65.8 μg Pi / mg protein).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170836.s001

(TIF)

S2 Fig. Correlation between knockdown effect and Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase inhibition in vivo in house fly (A) and cockroach (B) treated with decaleside II in a dose-response study.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170836.s002

(TIF)

S3 Fig. Time-course of in vivo inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase in Blatella germanica by decaleside II.

A) % Knockdown, B) Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase activity of decaleside II in Blatella germanica exposure at 1mg/leg (fore legs) by topical application (control activity: brain = 68.03 μg Pi / mg protein; coxal muscle = 75.8 μg Pi / mg protein). C) % Knockdown, D) Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase activity of decaleside II in Blatella germanica exposure at KD₅₀ (0.07 mg/cm²) by contact bioassay (control activity: brain = 73.4.03 μg Pi / mg protein; coxal muscle = 78.8 μg Pi / mg protein).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170836.s003

(TIF)

S4 Fig. Time-course of in vivo inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase in relation to recovery from knockdown of house flies treated with decaleside I and II at KD₅₀ concentration (0.032 mg/cm²) (starting time point after exposure was 45 min from which recovery was monitored).

A) Recovery from knockdown of decaleside I; B) Recovery of Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase inhibition (control activity: head = 37.56 μg Pi / mg protein; thorax = 17.4 μg Pi / mg protein). C) Recovery from knockdown of decaleside II; D) Recovery of Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase inhibition (control activity: head = 37.56 μg Pi / mg protein; thorax = 17.4 μg Pi / mg protein).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170836.s004

(TIF)

S5 Fig. Effect of direct topical application of decaleside II on the tarsi with or without wax treatment on A) Knockdown, B) Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase activity in contact bioassay.

I) Control (no wax), II) Control (no wax) + decaleside II (1mg/insect), III) wax treated on tarsi (+ solvent), IV) with wax treated tarsi + decaleside II (1mg/insect) (n = 4, error bars, s.e.m.), One-way ANOVA, ***P < 0.001.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170836.s005

(TIF)

S6 Fig. Kinetics of in vitro inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase in brain and coxal muscle of German cockroach: The double reciprocal (Linweaver-Burk) plot.

Brain: A, Decaleside I; B, Decaleside II. Coxal muscle: C, Decaleside I; D, Decaleside II.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170836.s006

(TIF)

S7 Fig. Kinetics of in vitro inhibition of the purified (porcine cerebral cortex) Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase: The double reciprocal (Linweaver-Burk) plot.

A) Decaleside I; B) Decaleside II.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170836.s007

(TIF)

S1 Table. In vitro inhibition (IC₅₀) of Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase by decaleside I and II in the house fly, cockroach and purified Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase (porcine cerebral cortex).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170836.s008

(PDF)

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the Director of the institute for his keen interest in this study.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: YR TS.
Data curation: TS.
Formal analysis: TS YR.
Investigation: TS YR.
Methodology: TS.
Project administration: TS YR.
Resources: TS YR.
Software: YR.
Supervision: TS.
Validation: TS YR.
Visualization: YR.
Writing – original draft: TS YR.
Writing – review & editing: TS YR.

References

1. Rajashekar Y, Tonsing N, Shantibala T, Manjunath JR (2016) 2, 3-Dimethlmaleic anhydride (3, 4 –Dimethyl-2, 5-furandione): A plant derived insecticidal molecule from Colocasia esculenta var. esculenta (L.) Schott. Sci Rep 6, 20546. pmid:26837840
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
2. Matsumura F (1985) Toxicology of insecticides. 2, Plenum Press, New York.
3. Nauen R (2006) Insecticide mode of action: return of the ryanodine receptor. Pest Manag Sci 62, 690–692. pmid:16770834
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
4. Elbert A, Nauen R, McCaffery A (2008) IRAC, Insecticide resistance and mode of action classification of insecticides. In: Kramer W, Schirmer U, editors. Modern crop protection compounds. Vol. 3, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Weinheim, pp. 753–771.
5. Yu SJ (2008) The toxicology and biochemistry of insecticides. CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, Florida.
6. Chandler D, Bailey AS, Tatchell GM, Davidson G, Greaves J, Grant WP (2011) The development, regulation and use of biopesticides for integrated pest management. Phil Trans R Soc B 366, 1987–1998. pmid:21624919
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
7. Ishaaya I (2001) Biochemical process related to insecticide action. In: Ishaaya I, editors. Biochemical sites of insecticide action and resistance. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 1–16.
8. Hemingway J, Field L, Vontas J (2002) An Overview of Insecticide Resistance. Science 298, 96–97. pmid:12364782
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
9. Schmutterer H, Singh RP (1995) List of insect pests susceptible to neem products. In: Schmuttere H, editor, The Neem tree Azadirachta indica A. Juss. and other Meliaceous Plants. VCH Publications, Weinheim, Germany, pp. 326–365.
10. Morgan DE (2009) Azadirachtin, a scientific gold mine. Bioorg Med Chem 17, 4096–4105. pmid:19112026
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
11. Millar N, Denholm I (2007) Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors: targets for commercially important insecticides. Invert Neurosci 7, 53–66. pmid:17216290
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
12. Ford KA, Casida JE, Chandran D, Gulevich AG, Okrent RA, Durkin KA, et al, (2010) Neonicotinoid insecticides induce salicylate associated plant defense responses. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107(410), 17527–17532.
- View Article
- Google Scholar
13. Kaufman PE, Nunez SC, Mann RS, Geden CJ, Scharf M (2010) Nicotinoid and pyrethroid insecticide resistance in houseflies (Diptera: Muscidae) collected from Florida dairies. Pest Manag Sci 66, 290–294. pmid:19904713
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
14. Albrecht CP, Sherman M (1987) Lethal and sub lethal effect of avermectin B₁ on three fruit fly species (Diptera: Tephritidae). J Econ Entomol 80, 344–347.
- View Article
- Google Scholar
15. Lasota JA, Dybas RA (1991) Avermectins, A novel class of compounds: Implications for use in Arthropod pest control. Annu Rev Entomol 36, 91–117. pmid:2006872
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
16. Cordova D, Benner EA, Sacher MD, Rauh JJ, Sopa JS, Lahm GP, et al. (2006) Anthanilic diamides: A new class of insecticides with a novel mode of action, ryanodine receptor activation. Pestic Biochem Physiol 84(3), 196–214.
- View Article
- Google Scholar
17. Lahm GP, Cordova D, Barry JD (2009) New and selective ryanodine receptor activators for insect control. Bioorg Med Chem 17, 4127–4133. pmid:19186058
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
18. Thompson GD, Dutton R, Sparks TC (2000) Spinosad—a case study: an example from a natural products discovery programme. Pest Manag Sci 56, 696–702.
- View Article
- Google Scholar
19. Sparks TC, Crouse GD, Durst G (2001) Natural products as insecticides: the biology, biochemistry and quantitative structure-activity relationships of spinosyns and spinosoids. Pest Manag Sci 57, 896–905. pmid:11695182
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
20. Rajashekar Y, Gunasekaran N, Shivanandappa T (2010) Insecticidal activity of the root extract of Decalepis hamiltonii against stored-product insect pests and its application in grain protection. J Food Sci Technol 43, 310–314.
- View Article
- Google Scholar
21. Rajashekar Y, Rao LJM, Shivanandappa T (2012) Decaleside: a new class of natural insecticide targeting tarsal gustatory receptors. Naturwissenschaften 99(10), 843–852. pmid:22955371
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
22. Shivanandappa T, Rajashekar Y (2014) Mode of action of plant derived natural insecticides. In: Singh D, editor, Advances in plant biopesticides, Springer India, pp. 323–345.
23. Inoshita T, Tanimura T (2006) Cellular identification of water gustatory receptors neurons and their central projection in Drosophila. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103, 1094–1099. pmid:16415164
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
24. Thorne N, Amrein H (2008) A typical expression of Drosophila gustatory receptor genes in sensory and central neurons. J Comp Neurol 506(4), 548–568. pmid:18067151
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
25. Kaplan JH (2002) Biochemistry of Na⁺, K ⁺- ATP ase. Annu Rev Biochem 71, 511–535. pmid:12045105
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
26. Harvey WR, Cioffi M, Dow JA, Wolfersberger MG (1983) Potassium ion transport ATPase in insect epithelia. J Exp Biol 106, 91–117. pmid:6317792
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
27. Dobler S, Dalla S, Wagschal V, Anurag AA (2012) Community-wide convergent evolution in insect adaptation to toxic cardenolides by substitutions in the Na, K-ATPase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109, 13040–13045. pmid:22826239
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
28. Jorgensen PL, Hakansson KO, Karlish SJD (2003) Structure and mechanism of Na, K-ATPase: Functional Sites and their Interactions. Annu Rev Physiol 65, 817–849. pmid:12524462
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
29. Petschenka G, Offe JK, Dobler S (2012) Physiological screening for target site insensitivity and localization of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase in cardenolide adapted Lepidoptera. J Insect Physiol 58(5), 607–612. pmid:22343317
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
30. Tang H-J, Ruan L-J, Tian H-Y, Liang G-P, Ye W-C, Hughes E, et al. (2016) Novel stereoselective bufadienolides reveal new insights into the requirements for Na+, K+-ATPase inhibition by cardiotonic steroids. Sci Rep 6, 29155. pmid:27377465
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
31. Wu CH (2009) Palytoxin: Membrane mechanism of action. Toxicon 54, 1183–1189. pmid:19269304
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
32. Rossini GP, Bigiani A (2011) Palytoxin action on the Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase and disruption of ion equilibria in biological systems. Toxicon 57(3), 429–439. pmid:20932855
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
33. Tosteson MT (2000) Mechanism of action, pharmacology and toxicology. In; Botana LM, editor, Seafood and Freshwater Toxins, Marcel Dekker, Basel, New York, pp. 549–566.
34. Vale-Gonzalez C, Pazos MJ, Alfonso A, Vieytes MR, Botana LM (2007) Study of the neuronal effects of ouabain and palytoxin and their binding to Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase using an optical biosensor. Toxicon 50, 541–552. pmid:17548099
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
35. Takeuchi A, Reyes N, Artigas P, Gadsby DC (2008) The ion pathway through the opened Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase pump. Nature 456(20), 413–416.
- View Article
- Google Scholar
36. Moria S, Sugaharaa K, Maedab M, Nomotoa K, Iwashitaa T, Tamagakia T (2016) Insecticidal activity guided isolation of palytoxin from a red alga, Chondria armata. Tetrahedron Lett 57, 3612–3617.
- View Article
- Google Scholar
37. Favlde MK, Scharninghausen JT, Cavaljuga S (2006) Toxic and behavioural effects of different modified diatomaceous earths on the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.) (Orthoptera:Blattellidae) under simulated field conditions. J Stored Prod Res 42, 253–263.
- View Article
- Google Scholar
38. Pavela R (2008) Insecticidal properties of several essential oils on the House fly (Musca domestica L.). Phytother Res 22, 274–278. pmid:17886229
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
39. Finney DJ (1971) Probit analysis: 3d Ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
40. Bloj B, Morero RD, Faias RN, Trucco RE (1973) Membrane lipid fatty acids and regulations of membrane-bound enzymes. Allosteric behavior of erythrocyte Mg²⁺-ATPase, (Na⁺+ K⁺) ATPase and acetylcholinesterase from rat fed with different fat-supplemented diets. Biochem Biophys Acta 311, 67–79. pmid:4268761
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
41. Chen PS, Toribara TY, Warner H (1956) Micro determination of phosphorus. Anal Chem 28, 1756–1758.
- View Article
- Google Scholar
42. Lowry OH, Rosenburg NJ, Farr AL, Randall RJ (1951) Protein measurement with Folin-Phenol reagent. J Biol Chem 193, 265–275. pmid:14907713
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
43. Ishaaya I, Barazani A, Kontsedalov S, Horowitz RA (2007) Insecticides with novel modes of action: Mechanism, selectivity and cross-resistance. Entomol Res 37, 148–162.
- View Article
- Google Scholar
44. Bloomquist JR (1996) Ion channels as targets for insecticides. Annu Rev Entomol 41, 163–190. pmid:8546445
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
45. Rattan RS (2010) Mechanism of action of insecticidal secondary metabolites of plant origin. Crop Prot 29(9), 913–920.
- View Article
- Google Scholar
46. Vijverberg HPM, van den Bercken J (1990) Neurotoxicological effects and mode of action of pyrethroid insecticides. Crit Rev Toxicol 21(2), 105–126. pmid:1964560
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
47. Vijverberg HPM, van der Zalm M, van den Bercken J (1982) Similar mode of action of pyrethroids and DDT on sodium channel gating in myelinated nerves. Nature 295(5850), 601–603. pmid:6276777
- View Article
- PubMed/NCBI
- Google Scholar
48. Norris DM, Cary LR (1981) Properties and subcellular distribution of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase and Mg²⁺ -ATPase in the antennae of Periplaneta americana. Insect Biochem 11(6), 743–750.
- View Article
- Google Scholar
49. Bonting SL (1970) Sodium-potassium activated adenosinetriphosphatase and cation transport. In: Bitter EE, editor, Membranes and Ion Transport. 1. John Wiley and Sons, London, pp. 257–363.

[ref1] 1. Rajashekar Y, Tonsing N, Shantibala T, Manjunath JR (2016) 2, 3-Dimethlmaleic anhydride (3, 4 –Dimethyl-2, 5-furandione): A plant derived insecticidal molecule from Colocasia esculenta var. esculenta (L.) Schott. Sci Rep 6, 20546. pmid:26837840
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[2] View Article

[3] PubMed/NCBI

[4] Google Scholar

[ref2] 2. Matsumura F (1985) Toxicology of insecticides. 2, Plenum Press, New York.

[ref3] 3. Nauen R (2006) Insecticide mode of action: return of the ryanodine receptor. Pest Manag Sci 62, 690–692. pmid:16770834
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[7] View Article

[8] PubMed/NCBI

[9] Google Scholar

[ref4] 4. Elbert A, Nauen R, McCaffery A (2008) IRAC, Insecticide resistance and mode of action classification of insecticides. In: Kramer W, Schirmer U, editors. Modern crop protection compounds. Vol. 3, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Weinheim, pp. 753–771.

[ref5] 5. Yu SJ (2008) The toxicology and biochemistry of insecticides. CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, Florida.

[ref6] 6. Chandler D, Bailey AS, Tatchell GM, Davidson G, Greaves J, Grant WP (2011) The development, regulation and use of biopesticides for integrated pest management. Phil Trans R Soc B 366, 1987–1998. pmid:21624919
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[13] View Article

[14] PubMed/NCBI

[15] Google Scholar

[ref7] 7. Ishaaya I (2001) Biochemical process related to insecticide action. In: Ishaaya I, editors. Biochemical sites of insecticide action and resistance. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 1–16.

[ref8] 8. Hemingway J, Field L, Vontas J (2002) An Overview of Insecticide Resistance. Science 298, 96–97. pmid:12364782
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[18] View Article

[19] PubMed/NCBI

[20] Google Scholar

[ref9] 9. Schmutterer H, Singh RP (1995) List of insect pests susceptible to neem products. In: Schmuttere H, editor, The Neem tree Azadirachta indica A. Juss. and other Meliaceous Plants. VCH Publications, Weinheim, Germany, pp. 326–365.

[ref10] 10. Morgan DE (2009) Azadirachtin, a scientific gold mine. Bioorg Med Chem 17, 4096–4105. pmid:19112026
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[23] View Article

[24] PubMed/NCBI

[25] Google Scholar

[ref11] 11. Millar N, Denholm I (2007) Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors: targets for commercially important insecticides. Invert Neurosci 7, 53–66. pmid:17216290
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[27] View Article

[28] PubMed/NCBI

[29] Google Scholar

[ref12] 12. Ford KA, Casida JE, Chandran D, Gulevich AG, Okrent RA, Durkin KA, et al, (2010) Neonicotinoid insecticides induce salicylate associated plant defense responses. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107(410), 17527–17532.
View Article
Google Scholar

[31] View Article

[32] Google Scholar

[ref13] 13. Kaufman PE, Nunez SC, Mann RS, Geden CJ, Scharf M (2010) Nicotinoid and pyrethroid insecticide resistance in houseflies (Diptera: Muscidae) collected from Florida dairies. Pest Manag Sci 66, 290–294. pmid:19904713
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[34] View Article

[35] PubMed/NCBI

[36] Google Scholar

[ref14] 14. Albrecht CP, Sherman M (1987) Lethal and sub lethal effect of avermectin B₁ on three fruit fly species (Diptera: Tephritidae). J Econ Entomol 80, 344–347.
View Article
Google Scholar

[38] View Article

[39] Google Scholar

[ref15] 15. Lasota JA, Dybas RA (1991) Avermectins, A novel class of compounds: Implications for use in Arthropod pest control. Annu Rev Entomol 36, 91–117. pmid:2006872
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[41] View Article

[42] PubMed/NCBI

[43] Google Scholar

[ref16] 16. Cordova D, Benner EA, Sacher MD, Rauh JJ, Sopa JS, Lahm GP, et al. (2006) Anthanilic diamides: A new class of insecticides with a novel mode of action, ryanodine receptor activation. Pestic Biochem Physiol 84(3), 196–214.
View Article
Google Scholar

[45] View Article

[46] Google Scholar

[ref17] 17. Lahm GP, Cordova D, Barry JD (2009) New and selective ryanodine receptor activators for insect control. Bioorg Med Chem 17, 4127–4133. pmid:19186058
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[48] View Article

[49] PubMed/NCBI

[50] Google Scholar

[ref18] 18. Thompson GD, Dutton R, Sparks TC (2000) Spinosad—a case study: an example from a natural products discovery programme. Pest Manag Sci 56, 696–702.
View Article
Google Scholar

[52] View Article

[53] Google Scholar

[ref19] 19. Sparks TC, Crouse GD, Durst G (2001) Natural products as insecticides: the biology, biochemistry and quantitative structure-activity relationships of spinosyns and spinosoids. Pest Manag Sci 57, 896–905. pmid:11695182
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[55] View Article

[56] PubMed/NCBI

[57] Google Scholar

[ref20] 20. Rajashekar Y, Gunasekaran N, Shivanandappa T (2010) Insecticidal activity of the root extract of Decalepis hamiltonii against stored-product insect pests and its application in grain protection. J Food Sci Technol 43, 310–314.
View Article
Google Scholar

[59] View Article

[60] Google Scholar

[ref21] 21. Rajashekar Y, Rao LJM, Shivanandappa T (2012) Decaleside: a new class of natural insecticide targeting tarsal gustatory receptors. Naturwissenschaften 99(10), 843–852. pmid:22955371
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[62] View Article

[63] PubMed/NCBI

[64] Google Scholar

[ref22] 22. Shivanandappa T, Rajashekar Y (2014) Mode of action of plant derived natural insecticides. In: Singh D, editor, Advances in plant biopesticides, Springer India, pp. 323–345.

[ref23] 23. Inoshita T, Tanimura T (2006) Cellular identification of water gustatory receptors neurons and their central projection in Drosophila. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103, 1094–1099. pmid:16415164
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[67] View Article

[68] PubMed/NCBI

[69] Google Scholar

[ref24] 24. Thorne N, Amrein H (2008) A typical expression of Drosophila gustatory receptor genes in sensory and central neurons. J Comp Neurol 506(4), 548–568. pmid:18067151
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[71] View Article

[72] PubMed/NCBI

[73] Google Scholar

[ref25] 25. Kaplan JH (2002) Biochemistry of Na⁺, K ⁺- ATP ase. Annu Rev Biochem 71, 511–535. pmid:12045105
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[75] View Article

[76] PubMed/NCBI

[77] Google Scholar

[ref26] 26. Harvey WR, Cioffi M, Dow JA, Wolfersberger MG (1983) Potassium ion transport ATPase in insect epithelia. J Exp Biol 106, 91–117. pmid:6317792
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[79] View Article

[80] PubMed/NCBI

[81] Google Scholar

[ref27] 27. Dobler S, Dalla S, Wagschal V, Anurag AA (2012) Community-wide convergent evolution in insect adaptation to toxic cardenolides by substitutions in the Na, K-ATPase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109, 13040–13045. pmid:22826239
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[83] View Article

[84] PubMed/NCBI

[85] Google Scholar

[ref28] 28. Jorgensen PL, Hakansson KO, Karlish SJD (2003) Structure and mechanism of Na, K-ATPase: Functional Sites and their Interactions. Annu Rev Physiol 65, 817–849. pmid:12524462
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[87] View Article

[88] PubMed/NCBI

[89] Google Scholar

[ref29] 29. Petschenka G, Offe JK, Dobler S (2012) Physiological screening for target site insensitivity and localization of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase in cardenolide adapted Lepidoptera. J Insect Physiol 58(5), 607–612. pmid:22343317
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[91] View Article

[92] PubMed/NCBI

[93] Google Scholar

[ref30] 30. Tang H-J, Ruan L-J, Tian H-Y, Liang G-P, Ye W-C, Hughes E, et al. (2016) Novel stereoselective bufadienolides reveal new insights into the requirements for Na+, K+-ATPase inhibition by cardiotonic steroids. Sci Rep 6, 29155. pmid:27377465
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[95] View Article

[96] PubMed/NCBI

[97] Google Scholar

[ref31] 31. Wu CH (2009) Palytoxin: Membrane mechanism of action. Toxicon 54, 1183–1189. pmid:19269304
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[99] View Article

[100] PubMed/NCBI

[101] Google Scholar

[ref32] 32. Rossini GP, Bigiani A (2011) Palytoxin action on the Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase and disruption of ion equilibria in biological systems. Toxicon 57(3), 429–439. pmid:20932855
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[103] View Article

[104] PubMed/NCBI

[105] Google Scholar

[ref33] 33. Tosteson MT (2000) Mechanism of action, pharmacology and toxicology. In; Botana LM, editor, Seafood and Freshwater Toxins, Marcel Dekker, Basel, New York, pp. 549–566.

[ref34] 34. Vale-Gonzalez C, Pazos MJ, Alfonso A, Vieytes MR, Botana LM (2007) Study of the neuronal effects of ouabain and palytoxin and their binding to Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase using an optical biosensor. Toxicon 50, 541–552. pmid:17548099
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[108] View Article

[109] PubMed/NCBI

[110] Google Scholar

[ref35] 35. Takeuchi A, Reyes N, Artigas P, Gadsby DC (2008) The ion pathway through the opened Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase pump. Nature 456(20), 413–416.
View Article
Google Scholar

[112] View Article

[113] Google Scholar

[ref36] 36. Moria S, Sugaharaa K, Maedab M, Nomotoa K, Iwashitaa T, Tamagakia T (2016) Insecticidal activity guided isolation of palytoxin from a red alga, Chondria armata. Tetrahedron Lett 57, 3612–3617.
View Article
Google Scholar

[115] View Article

[116] Google Scholar

[ref37] 37. Favlde MK, Scharninghausen JT, Cavaljuga S (2006) Toxic and behavioural effects of different modified diatomaceous earths on the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.) (Orthoptera:Blattellidae) under simulated field conditions. J Stored Prod Res 42, 253–263.
View Article
Google Scholar

[118] View Article

[119] Google Scholar

[ref38] 38. Pavela R (2008) Insecticidal properties of several essential oils on the House fly (Musca domestica L.). Phytother Res 22, 274–278. pmid:17886229
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[121] View Article

[122] PubMed/NCBI

[123] Google Scholar

[ref39] 39. Finney DJ (1971) Probit analysis: 3d Ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

[ref40] 40. Bloj B, Morero RD, Faias RN, Trucco RE (1973) Membrane lipid fatty acids and regulations of membrane-bound enzymes. Allosteric behavior of erythrocyte Mg²⁺-ATPase, (Na⁺+ K⁺) ATPase and acetylcholinesterase from rat fed with different fat-supplemented diets. Biochem Biophys Acta 311, 67–79. pmid:4268761
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[126] View Article

[127] PubMed/NCBI

[128] Google Scholar

[ref41] 41. Chen PS, Toribara TY, Warner H (1956) Micro determination of phosphorus. Anal Chem 28, 1756–1758.
View Article
Google Scholar

[130] View Article

[131] Google Scholar

[ref42] 42. Lowry OH, Rosenburg NJ, Farr AL, Randall RJ (1951) Protein measurement with Folin-Phenol reagent. J Biol Chem 193, 265–275. pmid:14907713
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[133] View Article

[134] PubMed/NCBI

[135] Google Scholar

[ref43] 43. Ishaaya I, Barazani A, Kontsedalov S, Horowitz RA (2007) Insecticides with novel modes of action: Mechanism, selectivity and cross-resistance. Entomol Res 37, 148–162.
View Article
Google Scholar

[137] View Article

[138] Google Scholar

[ref44] 44. Bloomquist JR (1996) Ion channels as targets for insecticides. Annu Rev Entomol 41, 163–190. pmid:8546445
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[140] View Article

[141] PubMed/NCBI

[142] Google Scholar

[ref45] 45. Rattan RS (2010) Mechanism of action of insecticidal secondary metabolites of plant origin. Crop Prot 29(9), 913–920.
View Article
Google Scholar

[144] View Article

[145] Google Scholar

[ref46] 46. Vijverberg HPM, van den Bercken J (1990) Neurotoxicological effects and mode of action of pyrethroid insecticides. Crit Rev Toxicol 21(2), 105–126. pmid:1964560
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[147] View Article

[148] PubMed/NCBI

[149] Google Scholar

[ref47] 47. Vijverberg HPM, van der Zalm M, van den Bercken J (1982) Similar mode of action of pyrethroids and DDT on sodium channel gating in myelinated nerves. Nature 295(5850), 601–603. pmid:6276777
View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

[151] View Article

[152] PubMed/NCBI

[153] Google Scholar

[ref48] 48. Norris DM, Cary LR (1981) Properties and subcellular distribution of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase and Mg²⁺ -ATPase in the antennae of Periplaneta americana. Insect Biochem 11(6), 743–750.
View Article
Google Scholar

[155] View Article

[156] Google Scholar

[ref49] 49. Bonting SL (1970) Sodium-potassium activated adenosinetriphosphatase and cation transport. In: Bitter EE, editor, Membranes and Ion Transport. 1. John Wiley and Sons, London, pp. 257–363.

Figures

Abstract

Introduction

Materials and Methods

Chemicals

Insects

Insecticidal activity

Dose-response

Time-course

In vivo inhibition of Na+, K+ -ATPase in relation to knockdown effect

Na+, K+-ATPase assay

Tarsi-mediated contact toxicity in relation to Na+, K+ -ATPase inhibition

Effect of hydrolysis of decaleside on the insecticidal activity and Na+, K+-ATPase activity

Effect of sugars on the insecticidal action of decaleside in relation to Na+, K+-ATPase inhibition

In vitro inhibition of Na+, K+ -ATPase

Statistical analysis

Results

In vivo inhibition of Na+, K+–ATPase in relation to insect toxicity

Effect of tarsal ablation and wax treatment

The effect of direct application on the tarsi

Effect of hydrolysis

Effect of sugars

In vitro inhibition

Type of inhibition

Discussion

Supporting Information

S1 Fig. In vivo inhibition of Na+, K+-ATPase in the cockroach by decaleside II (contact bioassay).

S2 Fig. Correlation between knockdown effect and Na+, K+ ATPase inhibition in vivo in house fly (A) and cockroach (B) treated with decaleside II in a dose-response study.

S3 Fig. Time-course of in vivo inhibition of Na+, K+-ATPase in Blatella germanica by decaleside II.

S4 Fig. Time-course of in vivo inhibition of Na+, K+-ATPase in relation to recovery from knockdown of house flies treated with decaleside I and II at KD50 concentration (0.032 mg/cm2) (starting time point after exposure was 45 min from which recovery was monitored).

S5 Fig. Effect of direct topical application of decaleside II on the tarsi with or without wax treatment on A) Knockdown, B) Na+, K+ ATPase activity in contact bioassay.

S6 Fig. Kinetics of in vitro inhibition of Na+, K+ ATPase in brain and coxal muscle of German cockroach: The double reciprocal (Linweaver-Burk) plot.

S7 Fig. Kinetics of in vitro inhibition of the purified (porcine cerebral cortex) Na+, K+ ATPase: The double reciprocal (Linweaver-Burk) plot.

S1 Table. In vitro inhibition (IC50) of Na+, K+ ATPase by decaleside I and II in the house fly, cockroach and purified Na+, K+ ATPase (porcine cerebral cortex).

Acknowledgments

Author Contributions

References

In vivo inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase in relation to knockdown effect

Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase assay

Tarsi-mediated contact toxicity in relation to Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase inhibition

Effect of hydrolysis of decaleside on the insecticidal activity and Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity

Effect of sugars on the insecticidal action of decaleside in relation to Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase inhibition

In vitro inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ -ATPase

In vivo inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺–ATPase in relation to insect toxicity

S1 Fig. In vivo inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase in the cockroach by decaleside II (contact bioassay).

S2 Fig. Correlation between knockdown effect and Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase inhibition in vivo in house fly (A) and cockroach (B) treated with decaleside II in a dose-response study.

S3 Fig. Time-course of in vivo inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase in Blatella germanica by decaleside II.

S4 Fig. Time-course of in vivo inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase in relation to recovery from knockdown of house flies treated with decaleside I and II at KD₅₀ concentration (0.032 mg/cm²) (starting time point after exposure was 45 min from which recovery was monitored).

S5 Fig. Effect of direct topical application of decaleside II on the tarsi with or without wax treatment on A) Knockdown, B) Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase activity in contact bioassay.

S6 Fig. Kinetics of in vitro inhibition of Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase in brain and coxal muscle of German cockroach: The double reciprocal (Linweaver-Burk) plot.

S7 Fig. Kinetics of in vitro inhibition of the purified (porcine cerebral cortex) Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase: The double reciprocal (Linweaver-Burk) plot.

S1 Table. In vitro inhibition (IC₅₀) of Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase by decaleside I and II in the house fly, cockroach and purified Na⁺, K⁺ ATPase (porcine cerebral cortex).