Figures
Abstract
Infectious diseases are one of the principal bottlenecks for the European eel recovery. The aim of this study was to develop a new molecular tool to be used in host-pathogen interaction experiments in the eel. To this end, we first stimulated adult eels with different pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), extracted RNA from the immune-related tissues and sequenced the transcriptome. We obtained more than 2x106 reads that were assembled and annotated into 45,067 new descriptions with a notable representation of novel transcripts related with pathogen recognition, signal transduction and the immune response. Then, we designed a DNA-microarray that was used to analyze the early immune response against Vibrio vulnificus, a septicemic pathogen that uses the gills as the portal of entry into the blood, as well as the role of the main toxin of this species (RtxA13) on this early interaction. The gill transcriptomic profiles obtained after bath infecting eels with the wild type strain or with a mutant deficient in rtxA13 were analyzed and compared. Results demonstrate that eels react rapidly and locally against the pathogen and that this immune-response is rtxA13-dependent as transcripts related with cell destruction were highly up-regulated only in the gills from eels infected with the wild-type strain. Furthermore, significant differences in the immune response against the wild type and the mutant strain also suggest that host survival after V. vulnificus infection could depend on an efficient local phagocytic activity. Finally, we also found evidence of the presence of an interbranchial lymphoid tissue in European eel gills although further experiments will be necessary to identify such tissue.
Citation: Callol A, Reyes-López FE, Roig FJ, Goetz G, Goetz FW, Amaro C, et al. (2015) An Enriched European Eel Transcriptome Sheds Light upon Host-Pathogen Interactions with Vibrio vulnificus. PLoS ONE 10(7): e0133328. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0133328
Editor: Giuseppe Scapigliati, University of Tuscia, ITALY
Received: April 7, 2015; Accepted: June 24, 2015; Published: July 24, 2015
This is an open access article, free of all copyright, and may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose. The work is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication
Data Availability: Sequencing data is available at the Short read archive: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sra/?term=SRA090946 Transcriptome data is available at GEO: Oligonucleotide array design and data: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/query/acc.cgi?acc=GSE45163
Funding: This work was supported by AGL2011-29639 (co-funded with FEDER funds), and Consolider-Ingenio Programs CSD2009-00006 and CSD2007-00002 from MICINN of Spanish Government. Grant support to Agnès Callol (BES-2009-024776, MICINN) and Felipe E. Reyes-López (BCH 4311/2013, CONICYT) are thankfully acknowledged.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Introduction
The European eel (Anguilla anguilla) has received much ecological and economic attention due to current population decline. They are a commercially important species in Europe, Asia, New Zealand and the United States (FAO). Since the production cycle of the eel has not been closed under artificial conditions, eel resources are based on glass eel catch from natural stocks provoking overexploitation and overfishing [1]. In parallel many other anthropogenic factors such as climate and oceanic change, habitat loss, migration obstruction, parasite infestation, water pollution [2,3] together with several critical biological characteristics such as a migration-dependent cycle, single breeding and longevity have influenced the critical decline of the natural population over the past decades [4]. Currently, the natural stock is considered outside of safe biological limits and as a consequence the eel is listed as a critically endangered species (IUCN).
The application of transcriptomics to the biology of eels can provide a significant increase in basic information making it a powerful tool to enable basic and applied research. High-throughput sequencing technologies provide new options to characterize transcriptomes and drive the development of new molecular tools and ultimately leading to a better understanding of the biology of the species [5–12]. The current gap in knowledge concerning the biology of eels makes transcriptomics an important and attractive approach. In recent years several research groups have contributed to the significant increase of A. anguilla genomic resources that to date compromise of a draft genome for the Japanese Eel, A japonica [5] and the draft of the European Eel genome is available at NCBI Genomes. However eel resources for molecular studies remain scarce [11,13] particularly those addressing immunity, health and disease. Immunogenomics driven by array and RNASeq technologies has opened up new perspectives into host-pathogen interaction studies including the identification of disease-specific network signatures, candidate resistance genes and increased insight into the evolution of the immune response [9,14–16].
Infectious disease has always been a bottleneck for the management and production of fish in intensive culture systems. Vibrio vulnificus is one of the most devastating eel pathogens having caused the closure of several eel farms in Europe due to massive mortalities [17]. This species is subdivided into biotypes and serovars among which only biotype 2 is virulent for eels causing an haemorrhagic septicaemia known as warm water vibriosis [17–18]. The ability to infect eels relies on a virulence plasmid of around 70 Kb (pVvBt2) that encodes a toxin called RtxA13 or MARTX (multifunctional, autoprocessing, repeat in toxin) type III, a fish transferrin binding protein, and several other proteins of unknown function [17–20]. RtxA13 seems to be the main virulence factor responsible for eel death, as infection by immersion with a mutant defective in the toxin causes septicaemia but not death [21]. MARTX are large mosaic toxins that are secreted after contact with eukaryotic cells. The toxin forms a pore in the cell membrane and a series of internal domains with different enzymatic activities, protease activity, are liberated into the cytoplasm causing cell death [22–23]. The current hypothesis is that RtxA13 interferes with eel immune cells triggering a cytokine storm responsible for the death [22].
The aim of this study was to design an immune gene-enriched oligonucleotide array for the eel and validate it by using warm water vibriosis as a disease model. To this end, we first sequenced the immune transcriptome of the eel after stimulating adult eels with different pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), extracting RNA from the immune-related tissues and sequencing the transcriptome. Then, we designed the oligonucleotide array from this database and validated results obtained by qRT-PCR. The array was used to analyse the early immune response against V. vulnificus at the gills, the portal of entry for this pathogen into the blood [24], as well as the role of RtxA13 by comparing the gill transcriptomic profiles obtained after bath challenge with the wild type strain (R99) or with a mutant deficient in rtxA13 (CT285).
Materials and Methods
Experiments with animals
Adult eels (Anguilla anguilla) of about 200g (±25g) were purchased from a commercial fishery, Valenciana de acuicultura (Puçol, Valencia). Fish were maintained in our facilities in recirculating water at 15°C under a photoperiod of 12:12 (light:dark). They were acclimated to laboratory conditions for at least 15 days before experimentation. All experiments described comply with the guidelines of the European Union Council (2010/63/EU) for the use of laboratory animals and have been approved by the Department of Environment of the Generalitat de Valencia under the reference code 2014/pesca/RGP/028. Eels were divided into 4 different tanks, 5 individuals per tank. Three different experimental challenges were carried out (1 challenge/tank), which consisted of an intraperitoneal (ip) administration of 250 μl maximum volume of either; 6 mg/kg of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from E. coli 0111:B4 (Sigma-Aldrich), 1 mg/kg of peptidoglycan (PGN) from E. coli 0111:B4 (Invivogen) or 3 mg/kg of poly I:C (Invivogen). Control individuals were injected via the intraperitoneal route with 250 μl of saline buffer. At 12 h post-treatment eels were killed by an overdose of benzocaine (Sigma-Aldrich) and liver, spleen and head-kidney were immediately dissected under sterile conditions and frozen in liquid nitrogen.
Library construction and sequencing
RNA extraction of individual tissues was performed using the commercial kit RNeasy MIDI kit (Quiagen), following the manufacturer’s instructions. RNA concentration and purity were measured using a NanoDrop1000 (Thermo scientific). RNA integrity was checked with an Agilent Bioanalyzer 2100 using the RNA nano chip kit (Agilent technologies). Four individuals from each group were used leading to a total of 48 samples. Samples with a RNA integrity number (RIN) value > 7.5 were pooled for cDNA library construction and sequencing.
Full-length-enriched double stranded cDNA was synthesized from 1.5 μg of pooled total RNA using MINT cDNA synthesis kit (Evrogen) according to manufacturer's protocol, and was subsequently purified using the QIAquick PCR Purification Kit (Qiagen). The amplified cDNA was normalized using Trimmer kit (Evrogen) to minimize differences in representation of transcripts. The method involves denaturation-reassociation of cDNA, followed by a digestion with a Duplex-Specific Nuclease (DSN) [25–26]. The enzymatic degradation occurs primarily on the highly abundant cDNA fraction. The single-stranded cDNA fraction was then amplified twice by sequential PCR reactions according to the manufacturer's protocol. Normalized cDNA was purified using the QIAquick PCR Purification Kit (Qiagen).
Five hundred nanograms (500ng) of normalized cDNA were used to generate the 454 libraries. cDNA was fractionated into small, 300- to 800-basepair fragments and specific A and B adaptors were ligated to both the 3' and 5' ends of the fragments. The A and B adaptors were used for purification, amplification, and sequencing steps. Two cDNA library replicates were obtained and two runs of each library were performed on the GS-FLX using Titanium chemistry, obtaining 4 independent raw data files GN8XUQJ01, GN8XUQJ02, GPBPVW401 and GPBPVW402. All reagents and protocols used were from Roche 454 Life Sciences, USA. RNA was normalized, processed and sequenced at the Unitat de Genòmica (CCiT-UB, Barcelona, Spain). The sequences have been deposited in the NCBI Short Read Archive (SRA) under accession SRA090946 (Experiment SRX304888). Only high quality reads passing filtering were used for further assembly using Newbler version 2.3 program (454 Life Science-Roche) with the parameters set to default. This Transcriptome Shotgun Assembly project has been deposited at DDBJ/EMBL/GenBank under the accession GBXM00000000. The version described in this paper is the first version, GBXM01000000.
Assembled contigs and singletons were annotated searching sequence homologies against NCBI’s non-redundant protein (nr) and NCBI's redundant nucleotide database (nt) by bestBLAST iterative methodology. Script consisted of four step iterative blast, combining BLASTX ➔ BLASTN ➔ BLASTX ➔ BLASTN, until a best hit description was assigned. The two first rounds were based on best description and the two next rounds based on e-values. If no description was found after the 4 rounds, sequences appear as “no hit found”. The e-value cut-off was set to 1E-05 and the bestBLAST hit with highest similarity and lowest e-value was assigned as the mRNA transcript identity. Hit descriptions were also filtered in order to remove uninformative identities.
Custom microarray design
The eel-specific gene expression microarray (4x44K) slides were custom designed with the eArray software (Agilent technologies), following MIAME guidelines [27]. A custom selection of transcripts from the de novo annotation, enhancing immune-related transcripts, was used for probe design. The arrays contained in total 41,383 probes of 60-oligonucleotide length. These probes were distributed as the following, 11,096 annotated singlets were chosen and two probes per target were added (22,192), a total of 6,397 annotated contigs with 3 probes per target (19,191) and the rest were filled with internal control probes. Settings used were based on the following: base composition methodology, best probe methodology, and designed with a 3’ bias.
Bacterial strains and growth conditions
V. vulnificus strains used in this study were the wild type strain (CECT4999 or R99) and an rtxA13 double deletion strain derived from R99 that is non-virulent (CT285) [19]. V. vulnificus strains were grown on Tryptone Soy Agar (TSA) or Broth (TSB) supplemented with 0.5% (w/v) NaCl (TSB-1 or TSA-1) medium at 28°C for 24 hours to reach a concentration of 109 colony forming units (CFU)/ml for bath infection. Bacterial concentration was checked before and after bath infection in TSA-1 plates.
In vivo bacterial challenge
Farmed European eel (A. anguilla) of approximately 100 gr (±15 gr) were purchased by a local eel-farm. Fish were placed in quarantine in 170 L-tanks (6 fish per tank) containing brackish water (1.5% NaCl, pH 7.6) with aeration, filtration and feeding systems at 25°C for one week. Fish were distributed into two groups of 12 individuals plus control (C) and handling control (HC) groups with an n = 4 each. Individuals were infected by bath immersion with R99 or CT285 at a dose of 1x107 CFU/ml (Lethal dose 50% previously determined for R99 infection for this eel stock). After 1 h of immersion, fish were transferred into new tanks, containing clean water (1.5% salt, at 20°C) and kept under constant conditions until sampling. Fishes were randomly sacrificed at 0, 3 and 12 h post-infection in groups of 4 individuals with an overdose of benzocaine (Sigma-Aldrich) and gills were quickly dissected and treated with RNAlater and stored at -80°C until use.
Control group were non-previously manipulated fishes and handling control group were fishes that had been manipulated as the challenged with clean-fresh water. All experiments described comply with the guidelines of the European Union Council (2010/63/EU) for the use of laboratory animals and have been approved by the department of environment of the Generalitat de Valencia under the reference code 2014/pesca/RGP/028.
Microarray protocol
Gills were shredded with a Polytron homogenizer (PT 1600E) by adding 1 ml of TRI Reagent (Sigma-Aldrich) and total RNA was purified following manufacturer’s instructions. Possible contaminating DNA was eliminated using RNeasy MinElute Cleanup kit (Qiagen) with a DNase I (Qiagen) digestion at room temperature for 15 min according to manufacturer’s protocol. RNA integrity and quality were verified with an Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer using the RNA 6000 Nano Chip kit. High quality samples, with an RNA Integrity Number (RIN) over 7.5 were obtained and used for microarray analysis. Sample quantifications were check by a Nanodrop ND-1000 (Thermo Scientific). A total of 200 ng of RNA from each sample was used for indirect labelling with Cy3 Dye (Agilent), labelled cRNA was purified using RNeasy mini spin columns (Qiagen) and quantified. After yields and specific activity was checked, hybridization was performed at 65°C for 17h, employing 1.65 μg of cyannine 3-labeled cRNA of each sample to hybridize into custom eel-specific microarray (ID 042990, Agilent) using Agilent’s GE Hybridization kit. All procedures were performed following manufacturer’s instructions for one-color microarray-based gene expression analysis along with Agilent’s one-color RNA spikeIn kit. Oligonucleotide microarrays slides were scanned with Agilent Technologies Scanner, model G2505B.
Microarray data were extracted from raw data image with Feature extraction software (Agilent technologies). Quality reports were generated and checked for each array. Extracted raw data were imported and analyzed with Genespring 12.5 GX software (Agilent technologies). The 75% percentile normalization was used to standardize arrays for comparisons. All samples were analyzed at gene-level by two different analytical approaches, by loop analysis and relative analysis against a reference sample. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used as a quality control, to detect any outlier sample, and to describe differences between groups. Statistical analysis available in Genespring software were run, one-way ANOVA (p<0.05) followed by Tukey’s pairwise comparisons were selected to describe transcriptomic profile differences along the time for each strain and between strains.
The complete design has been summited to Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database with the number GSE45163 linked to reference platform GPL16775.
Microarray validation by absolute quantification
Specific primers for mrlc2, clec1, casp1, casp3, mx, il1r2, cxcr4 and pcna transcripts were designed and analyzed (S1 File). Plasmids were obtained using the p-GEM easy vector (Promega) and transformed into JM109 competent cells (Promega) to be used for sequencing and standard curve generation. 400 ng of total RNA of all samples included in the microarray analysis were used to synthesize cDNA with SuperScript III Transcriptase (Invitrogen) and OligodT(Promega). cDNA was used as a template for absolute quantification in real-time RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) expression analysis. The copy number of each transcript was analysed using the MyIQ real-time PCR system (Bio-Rad, CA). Standard curves (Ct-Threshold cycle versus log copy number) of each transcript were done with serial dilutions of DNA plasmid purifications from 102 to 108 copies. Each sample was tested in triplicate in a 96-well plate (Bio-Rad, CA). The reaction mix (15 μL final volume) consisted of 7.5 μL of iQ SYBR Green supermix (Bio-Rad), 0.75 μL of each primer (500 nM final concentration), 2.5 μL of H2O, and 3.75 μL of a 1/10 dilution of the cDNA sample. The thermocycling program consisted of one hold at 95°C for 4 min, followed by 40 cycles of 10 s at 95°C and 45 s at 60°C. Data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by the post hoc multiple comparison by Bonferroni’s method that was run for each gene to determine differences between groups (p<0.05).
Results
454 Transcriptome assembly and data analysis
We obtained a total of 2.213,260 high-quality reads from 2 sequencing runs of the two library replicates. Reads were trimmed and de novo assembled using Newbler v2.3. During the assembly, 2.059,281 reads were incorporated into 32,687 contiguous sequences (contigs). 153,979 reads could not be matched against any other (no assembly) and remained as singlets, resulting in a total of 186,666 putative European eel transcripts of >50 base pairs. The average length of the contigs was 576 base pairs, with more than 14000 contigs having a length >500 base pairs, the average number of reads within the library per contig was 67 (median = 19) (Table 1). The sequences were deposited in Genbank with accession numbers GBXM00000001 to GBXM00024456.
Description of different properties of sequenced transcripts, assembly and annotation.
Annotation of all sequences was carried out with a four-step script combining BLASTN/BLASTX algorithms, which prioritizes hits with reference to other fish species in the two first rounds and the next two are based on best e-value match. An e-value cut-off of 10−5 was set and sequences with a length <50 base pairs (bp) were removed from the annotation. This resulted in a total of 109227 sequences with an estimated redundancy of 8.3% (95% sequence identity; CDHIT [28]. The annotation and therefore assignation of a bestBLAST-hit, for 39.5% (12,896 sequences) of the contigs and for 20.79% (32,171 sequences) of the singlets led to a total of 45,067 new descriptions. For contigs, the longest consensus sequence with bestBLAST hit assigned was 7,838 bp. The annotation ratio was directly correlated to transcript length, as longer sequences have an increased probability to identify an informative BLAST hit match. The percentage of annotation for transcripts with > 500 base pairs was above 45%. Our annotation resulted in a total of 12896 mRNA contigs of which around 8% were identified with respect to known immune-relevant transcripts in other species including, immune system recognition, signalling transduction and response molecules (Table 2). These transcripts include significant number of putative toll-like receptors (tlr1, 2, 3, 5, 5s, 13, 20, 21) and representation from other receptor groups including immunoglobulin, B-cell, T-cell, peptidoglycan, complement, NOD-like, mannose and cytokine and chemokine receptors (CC and CXC receptors). Important elements of the immune response were found such as, inflammatory cytokines and chemokines (ccl4, il8, il6, il1b, ifna, infg), complement system components (c3, c4, c6, cfh), immunoglobulins (IgM, IgT) and several immune-related membrane proteins and other molecules (cd81, cd83, B-cell ligands, hsps, mhcI, mhcII, transferrin, lyzozyme). In addition to recognition and immune response mRNAs, other transcripts involved to immune-signalling pathways and adapters were annotated as well as multiple adapter molecules and transcription factors such as, nfkb, myd88, stat6, tollip, jnk, traf, trif and some mapk. This provides a powerful tool for the study of the underlying molecular mechanisms of the eel immune system against infections.
Transcriptional regulation in gills
In order to characterize the response of adult European eels to V. vulnificus Bt2 SerE infection and the role of RtxA13 in the early host-pathogen interaction, we performed a time-dependent transcriptome analysis of adult eels bath-infected with either, R99 or a double mutant defective in RtxA13 production (CT285). This experimental design allowed us to interpret the specific response in the gills against V. vulnificus as well as gain insight into the role of the RtxA13 toxin during the early steps of warm water vibriosis. Gill samples were successfully hybridized onto the arrays. After data normalization and removal of outliers and flags, data was grouped by challenge (n = 3 per challenge). Microarray analysis was performed at gene-level (p<0.05) using GeneSpring. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used as a quality control for the samples and also as a simplified methodology for visualization of the data sets [29]. The PCA divided into 3 principal components that explain 78.5% of the total variance revealing a clear differential response between wild type and mutant strains. This allowed us to group all samples into 3 well-defined clusters corresponding to wild type, mutant strain infection and control groups (Fig 1).
Three principal components are represented, PC1 on X-axis (54.78%), PC2 on Y-axis (14.53%) and PC3 on Z-axis (9.14%).
Microarrays were analyzed following minimum information about microarray experiment (MIAME) guidelines manual [27]. Two different analytical approaches were used for the microarray data to provide the most complete interpretation of the results. On one hand, we performed a loop analysis [30] (Table A in S2 File), revealing the modulation of the response in a time-dependent manner and thus assessing transient changes (Figs 2A, 3A and 3C). On the other hand, we carried out a relative analysis, comparing all groups to the handling control (HC) group, used as a reference (Table B and Fig A-B in S2 File). This evaluated accumulated changes against the starting point (Figs 2B, 3B and 3D).
Bars represent the sum of upregulated (in red) and downregulated (in green) DEGs of each sampling group (n = 3). Numbers on the top of each bar represent DEGs number up/downregulated. (A) Loop analysis approach and on (B) Relative analysis against handling control group (HC). Numbers above the columns indicate upregulated/downregulated DEGs.
Red bars are upregulated transcripts and green bars are downregulated transcripts. (A and C) Loop analysis approach and on (B and D) Relative analysis against handling control group (HC).
Our results based on the number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs; p<0.05) with a fold change (FC) of >2 obtained from both analytical approaches and for both infections with V. vulnificus, identified 31 DEGs for R99-infected eel samples after 1 h of bath infection (time 0) and 12 for CT285 infection at 3 h post-challenge by loop analysis. With relative analysis we were able to identify 37 and 17 DEGs for R99 and CT285 strains respectively both corresponding to 12 h post-infection (Fig 2). Thus maximum change (FC) in intensity for the measured mRNAs occurred in the gills during infection with the wild type strain (R99). This corresponded to the largest change in the transcriptome registered throughout the experiment. In the same experimental group (R99) 5 and 15 DEGs observed at 3 and 12 h post-infection respectively. In the CT285 infection group the magnitude of the changes in the transcriptome observed were constant (mean = 10; SD = 1.8) throughout the experiment with 9, 12, and 11 DEGs at 0, 3 and 12 h post-infection observed respectively thus showing no time-dependent response to infection in respect to the number of transcripts (Fig 2A). A total of 8 DEGs were modulated between the control and handling control group (Fig 2A), which may be due to the stress provoked by handling or other unknown environment stimuli [31]. Therefore, the handling control group was used as a reference group for further evaluation of the results by the relative analysis approach.
Results obtained by relative analysis revealed that the magnitude of activation of the transcriptome remains constant until 12 h post-infection, with mean DEGs of 32.7 (SD = 3.8) for R99 and 13.7 (SD = 4.2) for CT285 (Fig 2B). Therefore the results of both analyses indicate that the timing of gill transcriptome activation to the infection is very short (Fig 2A). This short time period where the gill tissue contacts with the bacteria prior to secondary colonization into the individual may explain the relatively weak activation of differential mRNA expression and the low intensities (FC 2–3) reported suggesting that the gills do not strongly respond to V. vulnificus colonization (Fig 3). However some specific mRNAs with higher intensities were also identified including the C-type lectin 1 (clec1) and myosin regulatory light chain (mrlc2). Clec1 transcripts were the most strongly regulated by R99 bacteria, with 65.69 fold downregulation after bath (1 h) and 39-fold down after 3 h post infection, this effect is lost at 12 h as clec1 mRNA levels recovered basal levels (Fig 4A). Myosin regulatory light chain 2 (mrlc2) was the most regulated mRNA transcript by CT285, 54-fold upregulated, after 3 h of infection with the mutant strain, whereas in wild type infected eels it remained unchanged until 12 h post-infection (Fig 4B). Further classification of DEGs obtained by both approaches using the GeneCards database [32] highlighted that majority of DEGs are involved in the immune response. The most relevant immune-related regulated mRNA transcripts are shown in Table 3 for R99 infection and Table 4 for CT285.
Continuous line represents R99 infection and discontinuous line the CT285 infection. a represents statistical significance (p<0.05) relative to HC; and b statistic significance of p<0.05 by loop analysis.
Asterisk (*) represents relevant mRNAs with FC<2, however with statistically significant difference (p<0.05).
Asterisk (*) represents relevant mRNAs with FC<2, however with statistically significant difference (p<0.05).
Globally the wild type strain, Rtx-dependent, induced stronger transcriptomic changes than the double mutant although multiple regulated mRNAs could also be attributed to the general host immune response against V. vulnificus. In a RTX-dependent manner both CXC chemokine receptor type 4 (cxcr4) and the T-cell receptor V alpha (tcrα) were rapidly upregulated: cxcr4 with a 2.38-fold at time 0 with a maximum of 3.59-fold maximum at 12 h (Fig 4H) and (tcrα) with a 2.2-fold increase at 3 h (Fig 4I). Both caspase-1 (casp1) and caspase-3 (casp3) were also differentially regulated in a strain specific manner. Interestingly, casp1 was exclusively upregulated by R99 with a statistically significant 2-fold increase 3 h post-infection (Fig 4C) whereas casp3 was regulated by both strains, R99 with a 4.4-fold increase and CT285 with a 3-fold increase at different time points (Fig 4D). We also identified Rtx-independent mRNAs (found in both challenges) including interleukin 1 receptor II (il1r2) that was significantly more upregulated in the gills from R99-infected eels (Fig 4E) and TNF receptor-associated factor (traf3) that exhibited similar behaviour during both infections (Fig 4E and 4F). The Myxovirus resistance mRNA (mx) was also regulated by both infections although with a different temporal pattern where it was rapidly upregulated (6.45 fold) by R99 bath infection whereas a delayed response (12 h) was observed with a similar intensity (8-fold) in CT285 bath infection (Fig 4G) suggesting that different cellular activation pathways may be utilized.
Validation of the microarray results was performed by absolute quantification RT-qPCR analyzing 8 different transcripts, mrlc2, clec1, casp1, casp3, mx, il1r2, cxcr4 and pcna. Individual fold-change regulation values are summarized in Table 5, supporting and corroborating the results obtained in our transcriptomic analyses.
Discussion
Immune-enriched transcriptome sequencing
Two parallel target cDNA libraries were generated from total RNA in tissue pools; liver, spleen and head kidney obtained from individual fish challenged with one of the different PAMPs selected (LPS, PGN and Poly I:C) and a control group. This led to the production of > 2 x 106 high quality reads. cDNA libraries of liver, spleen and kidney have been proven to be an excellent source of transcript information concerning immune function in fish due to their central role in response to infectious diseases [33–36]. Kidney, spleen and thymus are considered the major lymphoid organs in teleosts [37–39] and the liver has an important role as an immune organ producing a significant number of antimicrobial peptides [38]. Furthermore, experimental activation of immune responses can be conducted by stimulation with different PAMPs, widely used in research to mimic viral (poly (I:C)), bacteria (LPS, PGN, CpGs) and fungal (Zymosan) infections [39]. The use of PAMPs as a replacement for a real pathogenic infection facilitates reproducibility of the experiments, design and data analysis by avoiding traces of pathogen genomic material and increased experimental variation.
A. anguilla occupies a basal position in the teleost phylogenetic tree and also is phylogenetically distant from other well described species [40–42]. Despite this potential limitation a significant number of novel descriptions, 40% for contigs, mainly annotated in O. mykiss and D. rerio transcripts (Table 2) were obtained. This was similar to a previously reported study in eel larvae that achieved 36% of contig de novo annotation [43]. Interestingly sequence annotation success was similar to other 454 de novo sequencing projects targeting teleost species with better transcriptomic resources such as the turbot with a 45% of annotated contigs with equivalent e-value cut-off [43–45]. However it was significantly less than annotations obtained from well-resourced teleost species such as common carp with a 52%, or sea bream larvae and juveniles with 66% and 51% respectively [43,45]. The obtention of 8% of immune-related transcripts (978 annotated transcripts) highlights the success of our immune-enriched library by PAMP stimulation with a similar performance when compared to other studies such as the 9.5% (2,241 transcripts) obtained in turbot infected with E. scophtalmi [44]. In context this is significantly higher than the 1.27% and the 1.35% reported from sequencing in non immune-enriched libraries from S. aurata larvae and juveniles respectively [43,45]. From these resources we then designed an eel custom microarray platform with enhanced representation of immune-related transcripts to study a broad range of diseases, both bacterial and viral.
Application of the eel-microarray to disentangle the early steps of warm water vibriosis
We selected warm water vibriosis caused by V. vulnificus Bt2 SerE as the disease model to test our custom array. Warm water vibriosis is one of the most devastating diseases affecting farmed eels grown in brackish water [17]. The disease is transmitted through water where the pathogen colonizes the gills and spreads to blood and internal organs causing death by primary sepsis [24]. This pathogen produces a toxin, called RtxA13, that has been proposed as the main virulence factor responsible for eel death [22]. Our array would constitute an ideal tool to test the veracity of this hypothesis by comparing the eel immune response against the pathogen and against a mutant deficient in the toxin. In this study, we have used both strains to infect eels through water and analyzed the differential immune response in the portal of entry, the gills, from 0 to 12 h post-infection.
Principal component analysis, as well as the magnitude of response much higher in R99-infected than CT285-infected eels, demonstrates that host response is directly or indirectly related to RtxA13 production, as the absence of the toxin in the bacteria provokes completely different host transcriptomic response profiles. Although DEGs numbers were not very high, with a maximum of 37 for R99 and 17 for CT285, a high percentile were related to the immune system suggesting that gills, as a portal of entry, may have an important role in immune recognition and response against vibriosis. These results are similar to the those described in the gills of trout and eels after pathogen infection or salinity changes, respectively, where a high percentage of expressed mRNA transcripts were related to the immune system [46–47]
One of the most differentially regulated transcripts was C-type lectin 1 (clec1), which was strongly downregulated by R99 and not by CT285 and therefore may be related to RtxA13 activity. The large family of C-type lectins includes collectins, selectins, endocytic receptors, and proteoglycans, some of them secreted proteins and others transmembrane proteins [48]. In particular, clec1 has been identified as a receptor expressed by mammal myeloid (dendritic cells [DCs], macrophages and neutrophils) and endothelial (ECs) cells among other immune cells that has a role in T-cell response regulation [49–50]. This result is quite interesting because the few V. vulnificus cells that can be observed in internal tissues from diseased eels appear closely associated with endothelial cells or with phagocytic cells [22]. Furthermore the toxin has been related to in vitro destruction of a wide range of eel and human cells during cell to cell contact occurring in less than 90 min. Observed cell death is produced by apoptosis or pyroptosis depending on the cell type [22, 23, 51–52]. In consequence, the apparent downregulation of clec1 could be due to death of CDs, macrophages and/or ECs caused by RtxA13. We found evidence of rtx-linked cell destruction by necrosis as casp1, an important necrosis-related transcript, was differentially upregulated during the first 3 h post infection. At this point clec1 was clearly downregulated. Caspase-1 is involved in the processing of proinflammatory molecules such as, IL-1β and IL-18 and in programmed cell death mediated by the inflammasome, this process, pyroptosis, being induced by many important pathogens [53]. The hypothesis was partially supported by the rapid increase in il1r2 transcription observed in the present study that was significantly higher in the gills from R99-infected eels. il1r2 has been characterized as a decoy receptor responsible for capturing IL-1, produced during inflammation, and reducing IL-1 bioavailability, as a strategy to control inflammation [54].
An alternative or complementary explanation for clec1 downregulation may be related to antigen presentation by local DCs or macrophages migrating out of the tissue to encounter naïve T cells. Indirect evidence in favour of this can be found in a previous study where we observed tlr2 and tlr5-expressing cells migrating from secondary to primary lamellae during the first hours post-infection with V. vulnificus [55]. At 12 h post-infection, migration of DCs or macrophages into the tissue contribute to recovering clec1 and casp1 basal mRNA levels. However this requires further study to fully understand the dynamics of cellular migration into the gill during bacterial infection.
Our trancriptomic profiling also revealed that another upregulated rtxA13-linked mRNA was cxcr4. This gene encodes a receptor for stromal derived factor-1, a potent chemoattractant cytokine that modulates stem cell mobilization, inflammatory cell infiltration, and angiogenesis [56]. Interestingly, the Shiga toxin produced by Shigella and Escherichia coli O157:H7, which cause the hemolytic uremic syndrome in humans, induces a strong over expression of this gene related to endothelial injury [57]. This is a very similar mechanism to that which we suspect is being produced during R99 interaction with eel cells. The authors found that CXCR4 inhibition improves renal function and, ultimately, survival in a murine model [57]. Finally, another upregulated mRNA was tcrα, a membrane receptor directly linked to T cells. This finding would corroborate the existence of the recently described lymphoid organ in the gill lamellae of several fish species, site of T-cell aggregation, named inter-branchial lymphoid tissue (ILT) [58–60]. A rapid secretion of specific antibodies in mucus from the gill against V. vulnificus compared to other mucosal compartments has been previous reported [61], suggesting that the rapid activation of the adaptive immunity molecules may be due to the presence of an ILT in European eel gills.
We also observed evidence of cellular apoptosis and the anti-viral response provoked by V. vulnificus but in this case independently to the RtxA13 toxin. This was reflected in the upregulation of caspase-3 and mx transcripts, respectively by both strains, although the response was faster in the gills of R99-infected eels. Caspase-3 is a marker for apoptosis or cell suicide and Mx although firstly related to anti-viral response can also represent bacterial-induced cell death [62].
Finally, another putative key molecule involved in response against V. vulnificus is the myosin regulatory light chain 2 (mrlc2) that was upregulated exclusively by CT285. Myosin regulatory light chains regulate contraction in smooth muscle including vascular smooth muscle and have been related with a stimulation of opsonophagocytosis by macrophages [63]. This result may reflect the efficient phagocytosis leading to clearance of the pathogen in the tissue and therefore contributing to host survival.
Conclusions
We have characterized an immune-enriched reference transcriptome for European eel. 454 sequencing of target libraries constructed from PAMP-activated individual fish was highly successful leading to a high representation of annotated immune-related transcripts. Our results describe a high quality transcriptome that contains significant mRNA diversity and functional relevance for our studies. This resource extends existing transcriptome data and is central to evaluating gene expression associated with immune response in this species. We then designed and validated a custom microarray for studies in the eel that provided a very useful platform to further our knowledge of host-Vibrio vulnificus interactions in this endangered species.
From our study we suggest that the processes involved in the early steps of eel vibriosis would be related with cellular destruction of immune and endothelial cells caused by RtxA13. This destruction is not caused by the mutant deficient in the toxin, which in turn would activate phagocytosis by local phagocytic cell populations. To demonstrate the role of the toxin in inducing eel death it will be necessary to analyze the immune response in blood and hematopoietic organs during the first 24 h of infection. Finally, we also found evidence of the presence of an ILT in European eel gills although further experiments will be necessary to identify such tissue.
Supporting Information
S1 File. Characteristics of specific primers used for microarray validation.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0133328.s001
(XLSX)
S2 File. Table A Classification of DEGs by loop analysis after 0, 3 and 12h after R99 or CT285 bath infection.
One-way ANOVA followed Tukey’s test with significance value of p<0.05 and no FC cut-off. Table B: Classification of DEGs by relative analysis against handling control group after 0, 3 and 12h after R99 or CT285 bath infection. One-way ANOVA followed Tukey’s test with significance value of p<0.05 and no FC cut-off. Fig A: Venn diagram showing common transcripts differentially expressed along the infection with R99 analyzed by relative analysis approach. Fig B. Venn diagram showing common transcripts differentially expressed along the infection with CT285 analyzed by relative analysis approach.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0133328.s002
(XLSX)
Acknowledgments
Authors would like to thank the Servei Central de Suport a la Investigació Experimental (SCSIE) de la Universidad de Valencia for their support in the maintenance of the animals.
Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: AC FG CA SM. Performed the experiments: AC FER GG. Analyzed the data: AC FER FJR GG FG CA SM. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: FER GG FG CA SM. Wrote the paper: AC FG CA SM.
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