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Fig 1.

Classification of common faults in PV cells.

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Fig 1 Expand

Table 1.

Comparative analysis of DL algorithms for image processing.

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Table 1 Expand

Fig 2.

EfficientNetV2 Efficiency Comparison:

(a) Training Time, (b) Step Time, (c) Parameters, and (d) FLOPs [22].

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Fig 3.

Analysis of PV Cell Conditions:

(a) Proportion of Defective vs. Non-defective Cells, (b) Distribution of Cell Types (Monocrystalline vs. Polycrystalline).

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Table 2.

Comparative Analysis of Defectivity in Monocrystalline and Polycrystalline PV Cells.

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Table 2 Expand

Table 3.

Distribution of PV cell image data for training, validation and test sets.

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Fig 4.

Comparative Display of Defective and Non-Defective Monocrystalline PV Cells.

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Fig 5.

Comparative Display of Defective and Non-Defective Polycrystalline PV Cells.

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Fig 6.

Summary of Data Preparation and Model Configuration Parameters.

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Fig 7.

Visualization of Data Augmentation Techniques on PV Cells(a) Shearing, (b) Zooming, (c) Rotation, (d) Flipping.

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Fig 8.

Comparison of Original and GradCAM-Enhanced PV Cell Images(a) Original Image, (b) GradCAM Enhancement.

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Fig 9.

Grad-CAM Process Flowchart: From Input to Heatmap Visualization.

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Table 4.

Key Configuration Parameters and Settings for PV Cell Defect Detection Model.

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Table 4 Expand

Table 5.

Comparison of Model Size, Memory Requirements, and Computational Complexity Across EfficientNetV2 Variants.

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Table 5 Expand

Table 6.

Comparative Performance Metrics of EfficientNetV2 Models for Photovoltaic Cell Fault Detection.

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Table 7.

Comparative Training and Validation Performance of EfficientNetV2 Models During Feature Extraction Stage.

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Table 7 Expand

Table 8.

First stage – (Feature Extraction) Training and Validation Metrics at Best Epoch Based on Minimum Validation Loss for EfficientNetV2 Models.

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Table 8 Expand

Table 9.

Second Stage – (Fine Tuning) Training and Validation Metrics at Best Epoch Based on Minimum Validation Loss for EfficientNetV2 Models.

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Table 9 Expand

Fig 10.

Training and Validation Accuracy Curves During the First Stage (Feature Extraction) for (a) EfficientNetV2B0, (b) EfficientNetV2B2, and (c) EfficientNetV2M Models.

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Fig 11.

Training and Validation Loss Curves During the First Stage (Feature Extraction) for (a) EfficientNetV2B0, (b) EfficientNetV2B2, and (c) EfficientNetV2M Models.

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Fig 12.

Training and Validation Accuracy Curves During the Second Stage (Fine-Tuning) for (a) EfficientNetV2B0, (b) EfficientNetV2B2, and (c) EfficientNetV2M Models.

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Fig 12 Expand

Fig 13.

Training and Validation Loss Curves During the Second Stage (Fine-Tuning) for (a) EfficientNetV2B0, (b) EfficientNetV2B2, and (c) EfficientNetV2M Models.

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Fig 14.

Confusion Matrices for Binary Classification Performance of (a) EfficientNetV2B0, (b) EfficientNetV2B2, and (c) EfficientNetV2M Models on Photovoltaic Cell Fault Detection.

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