Fig 1.
Flow chart of Study Participants.
Among roughly 16 million out of an estimated 3 million individuals, approximately 16 million were infected. After excluding 607,954 individuals who had received hypnotics medication within the past year, 2,375,621 subjects were eligible for the COVID-19 group and the matched cohort study. Lastly, 2,226,589 pairs were matched and analyzed. In the matching process, age categories were divided into groups every 1 year for subjects under 10 years old, and in increments of 5 years for subjects aged 10 years and older. The Charlson Comorbidity Index was matched using total scores.
Table 1.
Baseline characteristics of study participants.
Table 2.
Cumulative Incidences of Pharmacotherapy for Insomnia after the COVID-19 infection in the Matched Cohort Design for Composite endpoint, secondary endpoint and subgroup categories.
Fig 2.
Kaplan-Meier Analysis of New Prescription Rates for Insomnia.
Cumulative incidence of new pharmacotherapy for insomnia among individuals with COVID-19 (blue line) and a matched non-infected control group (red line). The p-value for the log-rank test was < 0.001, indicating a statistically significant difference between the two groups. The shaded areas around the lines represent 95% confidence intervals.
Fig 3.
Subgroup analysis for incidence rate difference and ratio.
This figure presents the Incidence Rate Ratios (IRR) with 95% Confidence Intervals (CI) on the left panel and the Incidence Rate Differences (IRD) with 95% Confidence Intervals (CI) on the right panel, stratified by demographic and clinical subgroups. Left Panel (IRR, 95% CI): The IRR compares the incidence rates between the exposure group and the control group within each subgroup. An IRR greater than 1 indicates a higher incidence rate in the exposure group compared to the control group. Right Panel (IRD, 95% CI): The IRD shows the absolute difference in incidence rates per 1,000,000 individuals between the exposure and control groups within each subgroup. A positive IRD indicates a higher incidence in the exposure group. The subgroups are the same as in the left panel.
Fig 4.
Sensitivity analysis for incidence rate difference and ratio across segmented intervals.
This graph illustrates the sensitivity analysis of the incidence rate difference (IRD) and incidence rate ratio (IRR) across various categories based on age, sex, and the Charlson Comorbidity Index. The analysis is divided into four distinct time intervals: 0-4 months (Blue), 5–12 months (Red), and more than 12 months (Green). Left panel (IRR): The markers in the left panel represent the IRR across the time intervals, illustrating the relative risk of the incidence rate between the exposed and unexposed groups within each category. Right panel (IRD): The height of the bars in the right panel indicates the IRD, representing the absolute difference in incidence rates between the groups within each time interval. The vertical lines attached to the bars and plots represent the 95% confidence intervals for IRD and IRR. IRR, incidence rate ratio; IRD, incidence rate difference; CCI, Charlson comorbidity index; CI, confidence interval.