Fig 1.
Geographic distribution of the study localities (yellow circles) on the islands of São Tomé and Príncipe.
(a) Location of São Tomé and Príncipe in relation to the African continent; (b) Study locality on Príncipe Island; (c) Study localities on São Tomé Island. This map was created using the free and open-source software QGIS. Basemap and data from © OpenStreetMap contributors, available under the Open Database License (ODbL 1.0) (https://www.openstreetmap.org/copyright).
Table 1.
Characteristics of Anopheles coluzzii larval habitats on the Islands of São Tomé and Príncipe during 2022–2023.
Fig 2.
Class abundance of aquatic macroinvertebrates by island, season, larval habitat type, and overall.
Abundance is shown for islands (São Tomé, Príncipe), seasons (dry, wet), and larval habitat types (permanent, temporary).
Fig 3.
Family total taxa richness (a) and total abundance (b) of macroinvertebrates, and family-level Venn diagram (c) showing differences across sampling parameters.
Sampling parameters include seasons (dry, wet) and habitat types (permanent, temporary).
Fig 4.
Richness (a) and Abundance (b) of aquatic macroinvertebrates across different habitat types and seasons.
Asterisks (*) indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between groups. The points represent the individual values of each sample, showing the dispersion of the data.
Fig 5.
Shannon’s index (a), Simpson’s index (b) and Pielou’s index (c) of aquatic macroinvertebrate biodiversity across habitat types, seasons and years in São Tomé and Príncipe.
Asterisks (*) indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between groups. The points represent individual sample values, showing the dispersion of the data.
Fig 6.
Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) plot based on a Jaccard similarity matrix, showing differences in aquatic macroinvertebrate composition between permanent and temporary habitats.
Each point represents a sample, with colors and shapes indicating the habitat type (permanent or temporary). Polygons represent the convex hulls encompassing each group. 2D stress = 0.12.
Fig 7.
Proportion of potential predators of mosquito larvae in São Tomé and Príncipe islands and relative abundance of each identified predator family.
Asterisks (*) indicate families with values below 1%.