Fig 1.
Evolution of human spinal posture from prehistoric to modern times.
A-F: In the observed cave paintings, figures from the hunter-gatherer period are depicted with upright spines. Positions such as sitting, leaning forward while sitting, bending forward, and lifting weights from a bent position are not observed. References: 1A: User: Clemens Schmillen. Title: Rock paintings from the Cave of Beasts (Gilf Kebir, Libyan Desert) Estimated 7000 BP. (Accessed: 13.02.2024, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bestias11.JPG) 1B: User: Alessandro Passare, Title: Round Head figures and zoomorphic figures, including a Barbary sheep (Accessed: 13.02.2024, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fondazione_Passar%C3%A9_V1_056.jpg) 1C: User: Bernard Gagnon, Title: Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (Accessed: 12.02.2024, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rock_Shelter_8,_Bhimbetka_02.jpg) 1D: User: Jimbfleak, Title: San rock paintings from the Western Cape in South Africa. (Accessed: 13.02.2024, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Southafrica468bushman.jpg) 1E: User: Ricardo Andre Frantz, Title: Cave painting at Serra da Capivara National Park, Brazil. (Accessed: 10.02.2024, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Serra_da_Capivara_-_Several_Paintings_2b.jpg) 1F: User: Laca Galuzzi Title: Rock paintings in Tadrart Acacus region of Libya dated from 12,000 BC to 100 AD. (Accessed: 09.02.2024, https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Libya_4924_Pictograms_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007_cropped.jpg.
Fig 2.
Early artistic depictions reflecting spinal alignment and load-bearing posture.
A-F: In a painting from ancient Egypt, workers are observed working seated or in flexion. References 2A: Artist: Norman de Garis Davies Title: Craftsmen, Tomb of Nebamun and Ipuky, User: Pharos Accessed: 05.02.2024, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Craftsmen,_Tomb_of_Nebamun_and_Ipuky_MET_eg30.4.103a.jpg 2B: Author: Photographed by the British Museum; original artist unknown Date: Photograph published 2001; artwork created c. 1300 BC User: A. Parrot Accessed: 01.03.2025, https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%B1s%C4%B1r#/media/Dosya:BD_Weighing_of_the_Heart.jpg 2C: Author: Olaf Tausch Date: 16 October 2019 Source: Own work User: Neoclassicism and Enthusiast Accessed: 01.03.2025, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Kairo_Museum_Statuette_Cheops_03_%28cropped%29.jpg 2D: Author: Olaf Tausch, Date: 16 October 2019, Source: Own work, User: Oltau, Accessed: 01.03.2025, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Kairo_Museum_Sitzstatue_Chephren_06.jpg 2E: Author: Djehouty, Date: 29 March 2016, Source: Own work, User: Djehouty Accessed: 01.03.2025, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Rahotep_Nofret_01.jpg 2F: Author: Daniel Csörföly, Date: 2007 January-February, Source: Photos taken by Daniel Csörföly, User: Csörföly and D Accessed: 01.03.2025, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Aswan%2C_Egypt_WestBankTombs_2007jan15._14_byDanielCsorfoly.JPG.
Fig 3.
Classical and Renaissance representations of spinal form and balance.
A-F: Farmers are observed working bent over, lifting objects from the ground while bent over, and working in improper positions. 3 A: Title: The Harvesters Artists: Pieter Brueghel the Elder, 1565. User: Rolf Kranz, (This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author’s life plus 100 years or fewer.) (This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1929.) Accessed: 13.02.2024, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Harvesters_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg. 3 B: Title: The Red Vineyard/ Red Vineyard at Arles. Artist: Vincent van Gogh. User: Coldcreation. This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author’s life plus 100 years or fewer. Accessed: 10.02.2024, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Red_vineyards.jpg 3C: Title: A Maid Milking a Cow in a Barn, Artist: Gerard ter Borch, c. 1652−54, User: Onderwijsgek, Accessed: 1.03.2025, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Gerard_ter_Borch_%28II%29_%22De_Koestal%22.jpg 3D: Title: Potato Planters, Artist: Jean-François Millet, User: DcoetzeeBot, Accessed: 1.03.2025, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Millet_-_Potato_Planters_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 3E: Title: Monthly calendar of tasks, Artist: Master of the Geneva Boccaccio, User: Il and Dottore, Date: 1470–1475, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Crescenzi_calendar.jpg 3F: Title: Breezing Up (A Fair Wind), Artist: Winslow Homer, Date: between 1873 and 1876, User: Trzęsacz, Accessed: 1.03.2025, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Winslow_Homer_-_Breezing_Up_%28A_Fair_Wind%29.jpg.
Fig 4.
Industrial-era changes in posture and mechanical loading of the spine.
A-E: Women, men, and children are shown working while seated or leaning forward in a sitting position. References: 4A: Title: Army Post Office 3, Boulogne, 1919. Artists: John Lavery (1856–1941) Users: Rcbutcher. This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author’s life plus 70 years or fewer. This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1929 Accessed: [27.11.2024], https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Army_Post_Office_3%2C_Boulogne%2C_1919_by_John_Lavery.jpg 4B: Title: A Day at a Leeds Flax Mill, Artists: No picture credit in book, Date: 1919, original image from 1843, Users: Tagishsimon, Accessed: 04.03.2025, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Marshall%27s_flax-mill%2C_Holbeck%2C_Leeds_-_interior_-_c.1800.jpg 4C: Description: Missouri Governor Joseph W. Folk inspecting child laborers, 1906, drawn by Marguerite Martyn of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Date: 29 April 1906, Source: Original publication: “St. Louis Post-Dispatch, April 29, 1906, User: BeenAroundAWhile, Accessed: 04.03.2025 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Missouri_Governor_Joseph_Folk_inspecting_child_laborers%2C_1906%2C_drawn_by_Marguerite_Martyn.jpg 4D: Title: The casting of iron in blocks, Artists: Herman Heijenbrock (1871–1948), User: Qlama9 Accessed: 04.03.2025 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/1890heyenbrock.jpg 4E: Description: From www.victorianweb.org/history/ashley.html, a educational site offering free info on the victorian age. Image is a copy of one from an official report of a parliamentary commission done in the mid 19th century, Date: 18:41, 11 October 2007, User: Skies, Accessed: 04.03.2025 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Coaltub.png.
Fig 5.
Modern lifestyle–related postural patterns and spinal stress.
A-E: Factory workers are observed working by bending forward and lifting weights. Reference: 5A: Title: Painting of factory workers Artist: Toni Anton Wolter. User: Wmpearl (This work was never published prior to January 1, 2003, and is currently in the public domain in the United States) Accessed: 13.02.2024, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Painting_of_factory_workers_by_Toni_Anton_Wolter.jpg 5B: Title: Annual, 1899 (May), Date: 1899−05; 1899, User: Ssafder, Accessed: 13.02.2024 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Annual%2C_1899_%28May%29_-_DPLA_-_14ca89cfa3717f287f4fd0a902420297_%28page_54%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 5C: Description: Steam engine technology, Date: 1894, Source: Brockhaus’ Konversations-Lexikon, 14.Auflage, 4.Band, Author: F.A. Brockhaus, Berlin und Wien, Permission: Author died more than 70 years ago – public domain, User: Hgrobe, Accessed: 04.03.2025, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Dampfhammer2_brockhaus.jpg 5D: Author: William Armstrong (1822–1914), Description: English: Painting of the Toronto Rolling Mills, an iron rails factory founded in 1857 by a group of businessmen led by railway magnate Sir Casimir Gzowski. At that time, it was the largest iron mill in Canada and the largest manufacturer in Toronto. The introduction of steel rails led to its closure in 1873., Date: 1864, Source/Photographer: This image is available from the Toronto Public Library under the reference number JRR 1059, User: Skeezix1000, Accessed: 04.03.2025, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Toronto_Rolling_Mills.jpg 5E: Description: English: Croton Aqueduct shutoff valve, illustration in Harper’s Weekly magazine, November 12, 1881, Date: Issue date: November 12, 1881; uploaded May 1, 2008, Author: W. St. John Hasker[ ?] (difficult to read artist’s name (at bottom right — in caption), User: Beyond My Ken, Accessed: 04.03.2025, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/HarpersWeeklyIllustrShuttingOffTheCroton11121881_crop.jpg.
Fig 6.
Improper working postures and ergonomic load on the spine.
A-E: Workers are observed working in improper positions. Reference: 6A: Title: The Munitions Girls Artist: Stanhope Alexander Forbes) User: Fæ This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Accessed: 16.02.2024 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%27The_Munitions_Girls%27_oil_painting,_England,_1918_Wellcome_L0059548.jpg 6B: Title: Woman Spinning, Artist: Jean-François Millet, Date: 1855−186 User: Trzęsacz, Accessed: 04.03.2025, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Millet_-_Femme_filature_(1855-60).jpg 6C: Title: The Stonebreakers, Artist: Gustave Courbet (1819–1877), Date: 1849, User: JarektUploadBot, Accessed: 04.03.2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gustave_Courbet_-_The_Stonebreakers_-_WGA05457.jpg 6D: Description: Gargantua, a lithography by Honoré Daumier, Date: 16 December 1831, Author: Honoré Daumier (1808–1879), User: Racconish, Accessed: 04.03.2025, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Honor%C3%A9_Daumier_-_Gargantua.jpg 6E: Title: A Cotton Office in New Orleans, Artist: Edgar Degas (1834–1917), Date: 1873, User: SreeBot, Accessed: 04.03.2025, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cottonexchange1873-Degas.jpg.
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Table 1.
Articles supporting our study on the longitudinal changes in spinal posture over time.